The tyrosine ZAP-70 (zeta-associated protein of 70 kDa) kinase plays a critical role in activating many downstream signal transduction pathways in T cells following T-cell receptor (TCR) engagement. The importance of ZAP-70 is evidenced by the severe combined immunodeficiency that occurs in ZAP-70-deficient mice and humans. In this review, we describe recent analyses of the ZAP-70 crystal structure, revealing a complex regulatory mechanism of ZAP-70 activity, the differential requirements for ZAP-70 and spleen tyrosine kinase (SyK) in early T-cell development, as well as the role of ZAP-70 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia and autoimmunity. Thus, the critical importance of ZAP-70 in TCR signaling and its predominantly T-cell-restricted expression pattern make ZAP-70 an attractive drug target for the inhibition of pathological T-cell responses in disease.

Increased osteoclastic bone resorption leads to periarticular erosions and systemic osteoporosis in RA patients. Although a great deal is known about how osteoclasts differentiate from precursors and resorb bone, the identity of an osteoclast precursor (OCP) population in vivo and its regulatory role in RA remains elusive. Here, we report the identification of a CD11b -/lo Ly6C hi BM population with OCP activity in vitro and in vivo. These cells, which can be distinguished from previously characterized precursors in the myeloid lineage, display features of both M1 and M2 monocytes and expand in inflammatory arthritis models. Surprisingly, in one mouse model of RA (adoptive transfer of SKG arthritis), cotransfer of OCP with SKG CD4 + T cells diminished inflammatory arthritis. Similar to monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (M-MDSCs), OCPs suppressed CD4 + and CD8 + T cell proliferation in vitro through the production of NO. This study identifies a BM myeloid precursor population with osteoclastic and T cell-suppressive activity that is expanded in inflammatory arthritis. Therapeutic strategies that prevent the development of OCPs into mature bone-resorbing cells could simultaneously prevent bone resorption and generate an antiinflammatory milieu in the RA joint. IntroductionOsteoclasts are the primary bone-resorbing cell and are essential for physiologic bone remodeling. In the absence of either RANK or its ligand RANKL, the essential receptor-ligand pair for osteoclast differentiation and survival, mice lack osteoclasts and have severe osteopetrosis with absence of tooth eruption (1-3). Osteoclasts are myeloid lineage cells that also require M-CSF for differentiation and survival (4, 5). Osteoclasts can be cultured in vitro from BM, peripheral blood, or spleen cells in the presence of M-CSF and RANKL. Although BM CD11b -/lo CD115 + CD117 + cells are enriched in osteoclast differentiation activity (6, 7), the cell-surface phenotype and biology of the BM osteoclast precursor (OCP) and its relationship to other myeloid lineages has not been characterized in depth.The common monocyte DC precursor (MDP) was described as having the cell-surface phenotype CD11b -CD115 + CD117 int (8), and differentiation of monocytes and DCs from MDPs has been intensely studied (reviewed in ref. 9). It is likely that MDPs can also differentiate into osteoclasts, as a population with a similar surface phenotype is capable of differentiation into osteoclasts, macrophages, or DCs, depending on cytokine conditions (6, 10). Recent work confirmed the primary BM OCPs as CD11b -/lo CD115 + CD117 + , although CD117 -cells were also able to differentiate into osteoclasts less efficiently (6, 7). BM OCPs in the human TNFA Tg (hTNF-α-Tg) mouse were identified by others as characterized by the markers CD11b + and Gr-1 -, using the 1A-8 antibody that is specific for the granulocyte Ly6G receptor, the main component of the Gr-1 epitope (11). Recent studies have identified a circulating quiescent lin-

Expression of V(D)J recombinase activity in developing lymphocytes is absolutely required for initiation of V(D)J recombination at antigen receptor loci. However, little is known about when during hematopoietic development the V(D)J recombinase is first active, nor is it known what elements activate the recombinase in multipotent hematopoietic progenitors. Using mice that express a fluorescent transgenic V(D)J recombination reporter, we show that the V(D)J recombinase is active as early as common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs) but not in the upstream progenitors that retain myeloid lineage potential. Evidence of this recombinase activity is detectable in all four progeny lineages (B, T, and NK, and DC), and rag2 levels are the highest in progenitor subsets immediately downstream of the CLP. By single cell PCR, we demonstrate that V(D)J rearrangements are detectable at IgH loci in ∼5% of splenic natural killer cells. Finally, we show that recombinase activity in CLPs is largely controlled by the Erag enhancer. As activity of the Erag enhancer is restricted to the B cell lineage, this provides the first molecular evidence for establishment of a lineage-specific transcription program in multipotent progenitors.

To investigate the role of the kinase zeta-associated protein of 70 kDa (ZAP-70) in T cells, we generated mice expressing a ZAP-70 mutant whose catalytic activity can be selectively blocked by a small molecule inhibitor. Conventional naïve, effector and memory T cells were dependent on ZAP-70 kinase activity for their activation, demonstrating a non-redundant role for ZAP-70 in TCR-induced signals. In contrast, ZAP-70 catalytic activity was not required for activation of the GTPase Rap1 and inside-out signals that promote integrin adhesion. This ZAP-70 kinase-independent pathway is sufficient for regulatory T (TREG) cell suppressive activity, which was unperturbed by ZAP-70 catalytic inhibition. Our results implicate ZAP-70 as an attractive therapeutic target.

ZAP-70 is critical for T cell receptor (TCR) signaling. Tyrosine to phenylalanine mutations of Y315 and Y319 in ZAP-70 suggest these residues function to recruit downstream effector molecules, but mutagenesis and crystallization studies reveal that these residues also play an important role in autoinhibition ZAP-70. To address the importance of the scaffolding function, we generated a zap70 mutant mouse (YYAA mouse) with Y315 and Y319 both mutated to alanines. These YYAA mice reveal that the scaffolding function is important for normal development and function. Moreover, the YYAA mice have many similarities to a previously identified ZAP-70 mutant mouse, SKG, which harbors a distinct hypomorphic mutation. Both YYAA and SKG mice have impaired T cell development and hyporesponsiveness to TCR stimulation, markedly reduced numbers of thymic T regulatory cells and defective positive and negative selection. YYAA mice, like SKG mice, develop rheumatoid factor antibodies, but fail to develop autoimmune arthritis. Signaling differences that result from ZAP-70 mutations appear to skew the TCR repertoire in ways that differentially influence propensity to autoimmunity versus autoimmune disease susceptibility. By uncoupling the relative contribution from T regulatory cells and TCR repertoire during thymic selection, our data help to identify events that may be important, but alone are insufficient, for the development of autoimmune disease.

How pathogenic CD4 T cells in Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) develop remains poorly understood.We used Nur77-a marker of T cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling-to identify antigenactivated CD4 T cells in the SKG mouse model of autoimmune arthritis and in patients with RA.Using a fluorescent reporter of Nur77 expression in SKG mice, we found that higher levels of Nur77-eGFP in SKG CD4 T cells marked their autoreactivity, arthritogenic potential, and ability to more readily differentiate into IL-17 producing cells. The T cells with increased autoreactivity, nonetheless had diminished ex vivo inducible TCR signaling, perhaps reflective of adaptive inhibitory mechanisms induced by chronic auto-antigen exposure in vivo. The enhanced autoreactivity was associated with upregulation of IL-6 cytokine signaling machinery, which might in part be attributable to a reduced amount of expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3)-a key negative regulator of IL-6 signaling. As a result, the more autoreactive GFP hi CD4 T cells from SKGNur mice were hyper-responsive to IL-6 receptor signaling. Consistent with findings from SKGNur mice, SOCS3 expression was similarly downregulated in RA synovium. This suggests that, despite impaired TCR signaling, autoreactive T cells exposed to chronic antigen stimulation exhibit heightened sensitivity to IL-6 which contributes to the arthritogenicity in SKG mice, and perhaps in patients with RA.

Hsu et al. show that a hypermorphic allele of Zap70, characterized by reduced autoinhibition, is associated with increased TCR signaling and triggers regulatory mechanisms by which negative selection and inhibitory receptors restrain TCR signaling to enforce T cell tolerance.

How pathogenic cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) T cells in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) develop remains poorly understood. We used Nur77—a marker of T cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling—to identify antigen-activated CD4 T cells in the SKG mouse model of autoimmune arthritis and in patients with RA. Using a fluorescent reporter of Nur77 expression in SKG mice, we found that higher levels of Nur77-eGFP in SKG CD4 T cells marked their autoreactivity, arthritogenic potential, and ability to more readily differentiate into interleukin-17 (IL-17)–producing cells. The T cells with increased autoreactivity, nonetheless had diminished ex vivo inducible TCR signaling, perhaps reflective of adaptive inhibitory mechanisms induced by chronic autoantigen exposure in vivo. The enhanced autoreactivity was associated with up-regulation of IL-6 cytokine signaling machinery, which might be attributable, in part, to a reduced amount of expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3)—a key negative regulator of IL-6 signaling. As a result, the more autoreactive GFPhiCD4 T cells from SKGNur mice were hyperresponsive to IL-6 receptor signaling. Consistent with findings from SKGNur mice,SOCS3expression was similarly down-regulated in RA synovium. This suggests that despite impaired TCR signaling, autoreactive T cells exposed to chronic antigen stimulation exhibit heightened sensitivity to IL-6, which contributes to the arthritogenicity in SKG mice, and perhaps in patients with RA.