Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved process, has functions both in cytoprotective and programmed cell death mechanisms. Beclin 1, an essential autophagic protein, was recently identified as a BH3-domain-only protein that binds to Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic family members. The dissociation of beclin 1 from its Bcl-2 inhibitors is essential for its autophagic activity, and therefore should be tightly controlled. Here, we show that death-associated protein kinase (DAPK) regulates this process. The activated form of DAPK triggers autophagy in a beclin-1-dependent manner. DAPK phosphorylates beclin 1 on Thr 119 located at a crucial position within its BH3 domain, and thus promotes the dissociation of beclin 1 from Bcl-X L and the induction of autophagy. These results reveal a substrate for DAPK that acts as one of the core proteins of the autophagic machinery, and they provide a new phosphorylation-based mechanism that reduces the interaction of beclin 1 with its inhibitors to activate the autophagic machinery.

Autophagy, a cellular degradation system, promotes both cell death and survival. The interaction between Bcl-2 family proteins and Beclin 1, a Bcl-2 interacting protein that promotes autophagy, can mediate crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis. We investigated the interaction between anti-and pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins with Beclin 1. Our results show that Beclin 1 directly interacts with Bcl-2, Bcl-x L , Bcl-w and to a lesser extent with Mcl-1. Beclin 1 does not bind the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins. The interaction between Beclin 1 and the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-x L was inhibited by BH3-only proteins, but not by multi-domain proteins. Sequence alignment and structural modeling suggest that Beclin 1 contains a putative BH3-like domain which may interact with the hydrophobic grove of Bcl-x L . Mutation of the Beclin 1 amino acids predicted to mediate this interaction inhibited the association of Beclin 1 with Bcl-x L . Our results suggest that BH3 only proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins may modulate the interactions between Bcl-x L and Beclin 1.

Autophagy, a bulk degradation of subcellular constituents, is activated in several neurodegenerative conditions. Beclin 1, a Bcl2 interacting protein, was found to promote autophagy. The closed head injury model was used to investigate the possible role of autophagy and Beclin 1 after traumatic brain injury. It is demonstrated that levels of Beclin-1 are dramatically increased near the site of injury. Neurons constitute the major population of cells, with the highest Beclin 1 levels near the site of injury at early stages post injury. Elevated levels of Beclin 1 protein in neurons last for at least 3 weeks. In addition, Beclin-1 expression after injury is elevated also in astrocytes starting at 3 days after injury. Confocal microscopy analysis suggests that the high levels of Beclin 1 protein in astrocytes is confined to subcellular organelles, probably lysosomes or autophagosomes. Double staining of Beclin 1 and TUNEL indicate that most of the injured cells that exhibit double staining are neurons and not astrocytes. These findings show that Beclin 1 may play a role in brain responses to head trauma. Overexpression of Beclin 1 may be important for autophagy at the lesion site and may serve as a mechanism to discard injured cells and reduce damage to cells by disposing of injured components.

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Autophagy, a process of self-digestion of cellular constituents, regulates the balance between protein synthesis and protein degradation. Beclin 1 represents an important component of the autophagic machinery. It interacts with proteins that positively regulate autophagy, such as Vps34, UVRAG, and Ambra1, as well as with anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2 via its BH3-like domain to negatively regulate autophagy. Thus, Beclin 1 interactions with several proteins may regulate autophagy. To identify novel Beclin 1 interacting proteins, we utilized a GST-Beclin 1 fusion protein. Using mass spectroscopic analysis, we identified Beclin 1 as a protein that interacts with GST-Beclin 1. Further examination by cross linking and co-immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed that Beclin 1 self-interacts and that the coiled coil and the N-terminal region of Beclin 1 contribute to its oligomerization. Importantly, overexpression of vps34, UVRAG, or Bcl-x(L), had no effect on Beclin 1 self-interaction. Moreover, this self-interaction was independent of autophagy induction by amino acid deprivation or rapamycin treatment. These results suggest that full-length Beclin 1 is a stable oligomer under various conditions. Such an oligomer may provide a platform for further protein-protein interactions.

The karyopherin ␣ 1 ( LeKAP ␣ 1) gene of tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum ) encodes a receptor involved in nuclear import. To analyze the expression pattern of this gene, a genomic clone containing its upstream region was isolated and sequenced. To study the promoter functionality, a 2170 bp fragment (LM1), was fused to glucuronidase (GUS) and introduced into petunia cells by particle bombardment. For further characterization of the promoter, one inverse and three deletion constructs were studied in cell suspension. To follow its expression in tobacco leaves, transgenic plants expressing GUS under the control of the LM1 promoter were made. Expression of LM1-GUS was largely restricted to actively growing leaf regions, suggesting possible involvement of active cell division and plant growth regulators in LeKAP ␣ 1 expression.

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