Both speaking and listening require taking into account the perspective of one's communicative partner. Is perspective taking a domain-specific process internal to the language production and comprehension systems? Or, is perspective taking a domain-general process regulated by the same mechanisms that are used to regulate other forms of behavior? Past research shows listeners' perspective taking is at least partially regulated by inhibitory control and working memory (WM), suggesting that it may be best thought of in domain-general terms. The current experiment uses individual differences in nonlinguistic executive functioning to assess whether domain general mechanisms help regulate speakers' perspective taking behavior. Sixty speakers participated in a referential communication task and tasks measuring WM and executive control (EC). Results revealed that WM and EC were both predictive of speakers' perspective taking, suggesting that perspective taking may be regulated by domain-general mechanisms.

There is no questioning that the way people live, interact, communicate, and conduct business is undergoing a profound, rapid change. This change is often referred to as the "digital revolution," which is the advancement of technology from analog, electronic and mechanical tools to the digital tools available today. Moreover, technology has begun to change education, affecting how students acquire the skill sets needed to prepare for college and a career and how educators integrate digital technological instructional strategies to teach. Numerous studies have been published discussing the barriers of integrating technology, the estimated amount of investment that is needed in order to fully support educational technology, and, of course, the effectiveness of technology in the classroom. As such, this article presents a critical review of the transitions that technology integration has made over the years; the amount of resources and funding that has been allocated to immerse school with technology; and the conflicting results presented on effectiveness of using is technology in education. Through synthesis of selected themes, we found a plethora of technological instructional strategies being used to integrate technology into K-12 classrooms. Also, though there have been large investments made to integrate technology into K-12 classrooms to equip students with the skills needed to prepare for college and a career, the practical use of this investment has not been impressive. Lastly, several meta-analyses showed promising results of effectiveness of technology in the classroom. However, several inherent methodological and study design issues dampen the amount of variance that technology accounts for.

In three experiments, we compared the effectiveness of rainbow writing and retrieval practice, two common methods of spelling instruction. In experiment 1 (n=14), second graders completed 2 days of spelling practice, followed by spelling tests 1 day and 5 weeks later. A repeated measures analysis of variance demonstrated that spelling accuracy for words trained with retrieval practice was higher than for words trained with rainbow writing on both tests (η p 2 =.49). In experiments 2 (second graders, n=16) and 3 (first graders, n=12), students completed 2 days of spelling practice followed by a spelling test 1 day later. Results replicated experiment 1; spelling accuracy was higher for words trained with retrieval practice compared with rainbow writing (η p 2 =.42 and .64, respectively). Furthermore, students endorsed both liking and learning from retrieval practice at least as much as (and sometimes more than) rainbow writing. Results demonstrate that retrieval practice is a more useful (and as engaging) training method than is rainbow writing and extend the well-established testing effect to beginning spellers.Spelling is a crucial skill that students learn during the first several years of formal schooling. Despite teachers endorsing the importance of spelling instruction and reporting an average of 90 classroom minutes per week on it, they report that more than 25 % of students struggle with Educ Psychol Rev

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