Background: In June 2017, an outbreak of the highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N8) was detected in commercial poultry farms in South Africa, which rapidly spread to all nine South African provinces. Objectives:We conducted active surveillance for the transmission of influenza A(H5N8) to humans working with infected birds during the South African outbreak.Methods: Influenza A(H5N8)-positive veterinary specimens were used to evaluate the ability of real-time PCR-based assays to detect contemporary avian influenza A(H5N8) strains. Whole genome sequences were generated from these specimens by next-generation sequencing for phylogenetic characterization and screening for mammalian-adaptive mutations.Results: Human respiratory samples from 74 individuals meeting our case definition, all tested negative for avian influenza A(H5) by real-time PCR, but 2 (3%) were positive for human influenza A(H3N2). 54% (40/74) reported wearing personal protective equipment including overalls, boots, gloves, masks, and goggles. 94% (59/63) of veterinary specimens positive for H5N8 were detected on an influenza A(H5) assay for human diagnostics. A commercial H5N8 assay detected H5 in only 6% (3/48) and N8 in 92% (44/48). Thirteen (13/25; 52%) A(H5N8) genomes generated from veterinary specimens clustered in a single monophyletic clade. These sequences contained the NS (P42S) and PB2 (L89V) mutations noted as markers of mammalian adaptation. Conclusions:Diagnostic assays were able to detect and characterize influenza A(H5N8) viruses, but poor performance is reported for a commercial assay. Absence of influenza A(H5N8) in humans with occupational exposure and no clear impression | 267 VALLEY-OMAR Et AL.
The study of disease organisms as invasive alien species has not received a great deal of attention in the field of invasion science. Introduced pathogens can have profound effects on living organisms, the ecosystems that they inhabit, and the economies that the ecosystems support. In this chapter, we use case studies of introduced diseases of domestic and wild animals (canine rabies, bovine tuberculosis, and rinderpest) and humans (smallpox, measles and human immunodeficiency virus, HIV) to illustrate the kinds of effects that these pathogens can have. The most dramatic impact to date was that of rinderpest, which caused the death of millions of cattle, and practically annihilated certain forms of wildlife from large parts of southern Africa. This in turn impacted severely on the region's economy, and resulted in large-scale changes to the structure and dynamics of ecosystems. Rinderpest has been eradicated globally, but both canine rabies and bovine tuberculosis remain, and ongoing vigilance and management will be required to contain them. Of the human diseases, smallpox has also been eradicated globally, but the effect of the disease, introduced by European colonists, was devastating. In the early 1700s, a large proportion (up to 90% in some communities) of the indigenous Khoekhoe people died, destroying their culture and way of life, and leaving the few survivors to be recruited as farm labourers. HIV, first detected in South Africa in 1982 has also had substantial impacts and antiretroviral treatment alone currently costs the government ZAR 66.4 billion annually. We also include West Nile Virus and African Swine Fever as examples of diseases that originated in Africa, and that may yet become globally destructive. We predict that new diseases will emerge as humans continue to expand their range into wild areas, and as trade volumes increase.
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