Sexual dimorphisms can be seen in many organisms with some exhibiting subtle differences while some can be very evident. The difference between male and female can be seen on the morphological level such as discrepancies in body mass, presence of body hair in distinct places, or through the presence of specific reproductive structures. It is known that the development of the reproductive structures is governed by hormone signaling, most commonly explained through the actions of androgen signaling. The developmental program of the male and female external genitalia involves a common anlage, the genital tubercle or GT, that later on develop into a penis and clitoris, respectively. Androgen signaling involvement can be seen in the different tissues in the GT that express Androgen receptor and the different genes that are regulated by androgen in the mesenchyme and endoderm component of the GT. Muscles are also known to be responsive to androgen signaling with male and female muscles exhibiting different capabilities. However, the occurrence of sexual dimorphism in muscle development is unclear. In this minireview, a summary on the role of androgen in the sexually dimorphic development of the genital tubercle was provided. This was used as a framework on analyzing the different mechanism employed by androgen signaling to regulate the sexual dimorphism in muscle development.
Medicinal plants have long been known to contain an abundance of natural bioactive compounds, some of which have been studied for their anti-cancer and anti-angiogenic properties. However, testing the possible side effects of a “drug” candidate is not congruently done in vivo. Hence, the effects of these plant extracts on different biological processes are unknown. This study aims to evaluate the anti-cancer and anti-angiogenic activity of the crude leaf extract of the plant Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg. while simultaneously assessing its safety. For anti-cancer and anti-angiogenic evaluation of the extract, MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5diphenyltetrazoliumbromide] and duck chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assays were utilized, respectively. Alongside this, the detrimental effect of the leaf extract on normal biological processes was conducted by examining its effect on mice implantation and embryogenesis through morphological and histological analyses. For anti-cancer potential, crude methanolic extract of the leaves from M. tanarius was found to be cytotoxic against HCT116 at a concentration of 18.93 ug/mL. The extract also showed anti-angiogenic potential as CAM assay revealed that the extract reduced the percent area of blood vessels. In the mice implantation assay, the methanolic extracts were not able to significantly decrease the number of embryo implantations in the uterus. Furthermore, CD31 staining showed that the uterus treated with M. tanarius exhibited a significant reduction in blood vessels. Reduction of blood vessels did not affect late organogenesis since the gestation index of dams and fetal malformation index showed no significant difference between PBS- (phosphate-buffered saline solution) and extract-treated groups after additional treatment at (embryonic day) E8.5 and E9.5. This suggests that M. tanarius leaves possess bioactive compounds for anti-cancer and anti-angiogenic therapy that may not interfere with normal biological processes such as pregnancy
Treatment for cancer is often challenging and various interventions may have detrimental effects. Due to this, the development of less harmful alternatives such as herbal medicine is essential. The present study aims to determine the leaf phytoconstituents present and the bioactivities of Mallotus cumingii Müll.Arg against cancer cells through the utilization of MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide) assay and anti-angiogenesis through CAM or chorioallantoic membrane assay. The leaf extracts obtained three fractions namely, methanolic crude (MCME) extracts, hexane extracts (MCHE), and ethyl acetate extracts (MCEA), and were tested on HCT-116 (human colorectal cancer cell line) for in vitro cytotoxicity, and blood vessel density and branching through in ovo CAM assay. Phytochemical analysis showed that the M. cumingii fractions contain phenolic compounds, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, and saponins. For in vitro set-up, MCME of M. cumingii were separated into MCHE and MCEA partitions and were tested against HCT-116 and obtained an IC50 value of < 30 μg/mL, which is deemed active in cytotoxicity. For in ovo set-up, two concentrations of each extract were applied to the duck eggs. Blood vessel density and number of branching points were measured through the ImageJ analysis. All extracts exhibited anti-angiogenic activity, either by decreasing blood vessel density or the number of branching points. Overall, the study demonstrates the potential of M. cumingii as a source of therapeutic agents.
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