The heat shock protein (Hsps) superfamily, also known as molecular chaperones, are highly conserved and present in all living organisms and play vital roles in protein fate. The HspA1A (Hsp70‐1), called Hsp70 in this review, is expressed at low or undetectable levels in most unstressed normal cells, but numerous studies have shown that diverse types of tumor cells express Hsp70 at the plasma membrane that leads to resistance to programmed cell death and tumor progression. Hsp70 is released into the extracellular milieu in three forms including free soluble, complexed with cancer antigenic peptides, and exosome forms. Therefore, it seems to be a promising therapeutic target in human malignancies. However, a great number of studies have indicated that both intracellular and extracellular Hsp70 have a dual function. A line of evidence presented that intracellular Hsp70 has a cytoprotective function via suppression of apoptosis and lysosomal cell death (LCD) as well as that extracellular Hsp70 can promote tumorigenesis and angiogenesis. Other evidence showed intracellular Hsp70 can promote apoptosis and membrane‐associated/extracellular Hsp70 can elicit antitumor innate and adaptive immune responses. Given the contradictory functions, as a "double agent," could Hsp70 be a promising tool in the future of targeted cancer therapies? To answer this question, in this review, we will discuss the functions of Hsp70 in cancers besides inhibition and stimulation strategies for targeting Hsp70 along with their challenges.

BackgroundLeptin, a 167 amino acid peptide hormone, profoundly effects reproduction exerting its biological effects via interaction with the leptin receptor (ObR) which is widely expressed on peripheral tissues. In this study, we have attempted to assess leptin receptor expression in the spermatozoa of fertile males and those diagnosed with male factor infertility; both at the mRNA or protein levels.MethodsSemen samples were collected from fertile males and individuals with male factor infertility. In order to evaluate leptin receptor expression several techniques were utilized, including: reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunostaining, flow cytometry, and western blotting. Mononuclear cells isolated from volunteers' peripheral blood were used as positive controls for leptin receptor expression.Resultsleptin receptor was noted on mononuclear cells but we were unable to detect this receptor on spermatozoa at the protein level. Leptin receptor expression was detected on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as positive controls; however it was not detectable on the spermatozoa of both groups by immunofluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry. Furthermore, positive expression of the ObR long isoform as assessed by RT-PCR was observed in the sperm of only four cases, whereas expression of beta-Actin, a house keeping gene, and HspA2, a testis specific gene, was present in all cases.ConclusionThe long isoform of leptin receptor may not be present on human sperm. Species difference may be accounted for diverse reproductive physiology which depends on metabolic requirement. Leptin receptor expression at the mRNA level in some individuals may be related to contamination by other cells in semen.