A study was undertaken to explore the incorporation of research into the landscape architectural design process. A review of the literature revealed five discrete models by which research is integrated into design: concept-test; analysis-synthesis; experiential; complex intellectual activity; and associationist. Indepth interviews with eight landscape architecture educators and a mail-in survey of all landscape architecture educators in North America failed to confirm the utility of these five models. Instead, a different kind of model emerged from the results. In this model, research is incorporated at three stages of the design process: before design; during design; and after design. Before design, there appear to be two categories of research: indirect (which includes intrinsic research, library research, and review of precedents and case studies); and direct (which includes site inventory and analysis). During design, research seems to have two key roles: influencing the concept generation process and the application of the concept on the site. Five models emerged for using research during design: artistic, intuitive, adaptive, analytical, and systematic. Finally, after design research has two roles: evaluation of design, and justification of design. This categorization, as elucidated by educators, provides insight into the landscape architecture design process and its communication and teaching.
Whether providing sustenance during the World Wars, an avenue for grassroots activism in the 1970s, or a local food source for a modern world focused on "sustainable" living, community gardens have proven adept at conforming to society's needs. Today, a broad range of organizations seeks to maximize the community building and food security benefi ts commonly attributed to the success of community gardens. Their development and administration must address concerns related to their longterm sustainability to position them for success as permanent and valuable parts of the urban landscape. The research for this project involved two methods: a literature review and interviews with community garden leaders with various roles in the planning, development, and management of a range of community gardens across the United States. The research reveals that successful community gardens are often grown from four "seeds": secured land tenure; sustained interest; community development; and appropriate design. The recommended considerations include design, development and administration factors.
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