Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by widespread alpha-synuclein pathology and neuronal loss, primarily of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Inflammation has been implicated in PD, and alpha-synuclein can initiate microglial activation; however, the kinetics and distribution of inflammatory responses to alpha-synuclein overexpression in vivo are not well understood. We have examined the regional and temporal pattern of microglial activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in mice over-expressing wild-type human alpha-synuclein driven by the Thy1-promoter (Thy1-aSyn mice). Increased number of activated microglia, and increased levels of TNF-α mRNA and protein were first detected in the striatum (1 month of age) and later in the substantia nigra (5–6 months), but not cerebral cortex or cerebellum; in contrast, IL-1β and TGFβ remained unchanged in striatum and substantia nigra at all ages examined. Microglial activation persisted up to 14 months of age in these regions and only minimal increases were observed in other regions at this later age. Increased concentrations of serum TNF-α were observed at 5–6 months, but not 1 month of age. The expression of toll-like receptors (TLR) 1, TLR 4 and TLR 8, which are possible mediators of microglial activation, was increased at 5–6 months in the substantia nigra but not in the cerebral cortex, and TLR 2 was increased in the substantia nigra at 14 months of age. With the exception of a slight increase in the striatum of 14 months old Thy1-aSyn mice, MHCII staining was not detected in the regions and ages examined. Similarly, peripheral CD4 and CD8-postive T cells were increased in the blood but only at 22 months of age, suggesting later involvement of the adaptive immune response. These data indicate that, despite the presence of high levels of alpha-synuclein in other brain regions, alpha-synuclein overexpression caused a selective early inflammatory response in regions containing the axon terminals and cell bodies of the nigrostriatal pathway. Our results suggest that specific factors, possibly involving a regionally and temporally selective increase in TLRs, mediate alpha-synuclein-induced inflammatory responses in the SN, and may play a role in the selective vulnerability of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in PD.

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How genetic variations in the dopamine transporter (DAT) combined with exposure to environmental toxins modulate the risk of Parkinson’s disease (PD) remains unclear. Using unbiased stereology in DAT knock-down mice (DAT-KD) and wild-type (WT) littermates we found that decreased DAT caused a loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive (dopaminergic) neurons in subregions of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) at 3–4 days, 5 weeks, and 18 months of age. Both genotypes lost dopaminergic neurons with age and remaining neurons at 11 months were resilient to paraquat/maneb. In 5 weeks old mice, the toxins decreased SNc dopaminergic neurons in both genotypes but less in DAT-KD. Regional analysis revealed striking differences in the subsets of neurons affected by low DAT, paraquat/maneb, and aging. In particular, we show that a potentially protective effect of low DAT against toxin exposure is not sufficient to reduce death of all nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Thus, different regional vulnerability of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons may contribute to an increased risk of developing PD when multiple factors are combined.

In our cohort of diabetic women who underwent cesarean delivery, immediate postoperative hyperglycemia was not associated with wound morbidity.