Plant protein sources, as a part of developing sustainable food systems, are currently of interest globally. Brewer’s spent grain (BSG) is the most plentiful by-product of the brewing industry, representing ~85% of the total side streams produced. Although nutritionally dense, there are very few methods of upcycling these materials. High in protein, BSG can serve as an ideal raw material for protein isolate production. This study details the nutritional and functional characteristics of BSG protein isolate, EverPro, and compares these with the technological performance of the current gold standard plant protein isolates, pea and soy. The compositional characteristics are determined, including amino acid analysis, protein solubility, and protein profile among others. Related physical properties are determined, including foaming characteristics, emulsifying properties, zeta potential, surface hydrophobicity, and rheological properties. Regarding nutrition, EverPro meets or exceeds the requirement of each essential amino acid per g protein, with the exception of lysine, while pea and soy are deficient in methionine and cysteine. EverPro has a similar protein content to the pea and soy isolates, but far exceeds them in terms of protein solubility, with a protein solubility of ~100% compared to 22% and 52% for pea and soy isolates, respectively. This increased solubility, in turn, affects other functional properties; EverPro displays the highest foaming capacity and exhibits low sedimentation activity, while also possessing minimal gelation properties and low emulsion stabilising activity when compared to pea and soy isolates. This study outlines the functional and nutritional properties of EverPro, a brewer’s spent grain protein, in comparison to commercial plant protein isolates, indicating the potential for the inclusion of new, sustainable plant-based protein sources in human nutrition, in particular dairy alternative applications.

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Repurposing by-products to alternative applications has become a vital part of food research. Barley rootlets (BRs) are a side-stream of malting and brewing industries. This study focuses on processing BRs into food ingredients, using fermentation with five lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as a valorisation technique. The strains used were Lactiplantibacillus plantarum FST 1.7, Lactobacillus amylovorus FST2.11, Weissella cibaria MG1, Leuconostoc citreum TR116 and Limosilactobacillus reuteri R29. The influence of fermentation on sugar/FODMAP/acid compositions and microbial metabolites in BRs was analysed. A variety of techno-functional properties were also evaluated. Results showed BRs were a suitable substrate for LAB, particularly for Lactiplantibacillus plantarum FST 1.7 and Lactobacillus amylovorus FST2.11. Sugar, acid and the FODMAP composition of the fermented BRs demonstrated various traits imparted by LABs, including high mannitol production from Leuconostoc citreum TR116 and Limosilactobacillus reuteri R29. Limosilactobacillus reuteri R29 also produced fructans using BRs as a substrate. A techno-functional analysis of BRs showed a significant reduction in α-amylase activity post sterilisation and fermentation. Fermentation reduced water-binding capacity and significantly increased oil-binding capacity. The LAB used displayed great potential in improving the functionality of BRs as a food ingredient while also showcasing LAB fermentation as a viable processing aid for BR valorisation.

The addition of contaminated powdered spices and seasonings to finished products which do not undergo further processing represents a significant concern for food manufacturers. To reduce the incidence of bacterial contamination, seasoning ingredients should be subjected to a decontamination process. Ultraviolet light emitting diodes (UV-LEDs) have been suggested as an alternative to UV lamps for reducing the microbial load of foods, due to their increasing efficiency, robustness and decreasing cost. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of UV-LED devices for the inactivation of four bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Salmonella Typhimurium) on a plastic surface and in four powdered seasoning ingredients (onion powder, garlic powder, cheese and onion powder and chilli powder). Surface inactivation experiments with UV mercury lamps, UVC-LEDs and UVA-LEDs emitting at wavelengths of 254 nm, 270 nm and 365 nm, respectively, revealed that treatment with UVC-LEDs were comparable to, or better than those observed using the mercury lamp. Bacterial reductions in the seasoning powders with UVC-LEDs were less than in the surface inactivation experiments, but significant reductions of 0.75–3 log10 colony forming units (CFU) were obtained following longer (40 s) UVC-LED exposure times. Inactivation kinetics were generally nonlinear, and a comparison of the predictive models highlighted that microbial inactivation was dependent on the combination of powder and microorganism. This study is the first to report on the efficacy of UV-LEDs for the inactivation of several different bacterial species in a variety of powdered ingredients, highlighting the potential of the technology as an alternative to the traditional UV lamps used in the food industry.

Kombucha is a carbonated, slightly acidic beverage traditionally produced by the fermentation of sweetened tea by a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). The microbial community of kombucha is a complex one, whose dynamics are still not fully understood; however, the emergence of culture-independent techniques has allowed a more comprehensive insight into kombucha microbiota. In recent times, advancements have been made towards the optimisation of the fermentation process, including the use of alternative substrates, defined starter cultures and the modification of fermentation parameters, with the aim of producing an innovative beverage that is improved in terms of its physiochemical, sensory and bioactive properties. The global kombucha market is rapidly increasing, with the rising popularity of the tea attributed in part to its purported health benefits, despite the lack of research in human subjects to substantiate such claims. Accordingly, the incidence of kombucha home-brewing has increased, meaning there is a requirement for individuals to recognise the potential hazards associated with fermentation and the relevant preventative measures to be undertaken to ensure the safe preparation of kombucha. The aim of this review is to provide an update regarding the current knowledge of kombucha production, microbiology, safety and marketing.

There is an urgent requirement to minimize food waste and create more sustainable food systems that address global increases in malnutrition and hunger. The nutritional value of brewers' spent grain (BSG) makes it attractive for upcycling into value-added ingredients rich in protein and fiber having a lower environmental impact than comparable plant-based ingredients. BSG is predictably available in large quantities globally and can therefore play a role in addressing hunger in the developing world via the fortification of humanitarian food aid products. Moreover, addition of BSG-derived ingredients can improve the nutritional profile of foods commonly consumed in more developed regions, which may aid in reducing the prevalence of dietary-related disease and mortality. Challenges facing the widespread utilization of upcycled BSG ingredients include regulatory status, variability of raw material composition, and consumer perception as low-value waste products; however, the rapidly growing upcycled food market suggests increasing consumer acceptability and opportunities for significant market growth via effective new product innovation and communication strategies.

Water kefir is a sparkling fermented beverage produced by fermenting water kefir grains in a sucrose solution containing dried fruits or fruit extracts. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of substrate composition on the fermentation kinetics and culture-dependent microbial composition of water kefir. First, the impact of different fruit substrates and nitrogen limitation was examined. Fermentation of different fruit-based media with a single water kefir culture demonstrated that the substrate mainly influenced the type and ratio of the organic acids produced. These organic acid profiles could be linked to the culture-dependent microbial composition. In addition, the microbial composition and the associated dominant microorganisms observed were influenced by the water kefir fermentation conditions. Investigation of the effect of nitrogen limitation on the fermentation kinetics of several water kefir cultures showed that under such conditions, the fermentative capacity of the cultures declined. However, this decline was not immediate, and specific water kefir microorganisms may have enabled some cultures to maintain a higher fermentative capacity for longer. Thus, the water kefir fermentation kinetics and characteristics could be linked to the substrate composition, microorganisms present, and the process conditions under which the fermentations were performed.

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