Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic, carcinogenic, immunosuppressive secondary metabolites produced by some Aspergillus species which colonize crops, including many dietary staple foods and feed components. AFB1 is the prevalent and most toxic among AFs. In the liver, it is biotransformed into AFM1, which is then excreted into the milk of lactating mammals, including dairy animals. AFM1 has been shown to be cause of both acute and chronic toxicoses. The presence of AFM1 in milk and dairy products represents a worldwide concern since even small amounts of this metabolite may be of importance as long-term exposure is concerned. Contamination of milk may be mitigated either directly, decreasing the AFM1 content in contaminated milk, or indirectly, decreasing AFB1 contamination in the feed of dairy animals. Current strategies for AFM1 mitigation include good agricultural practices in pre-harvest and post-harvest management of feed crops (including storage) and physical or chemical decontamination of feed and milk. However, no single strategy offers a complete solution to the issue.

In recent years, the increase of invasive fungal infections and the emergence of antifungal resistance stressed the need for new antifungal drugs. Peptides have shown to be good candidates for the development of alternative antimicrobial agents through high-throughput screening, and subsequent optimization according to a rational approach. This review presents a brief overview on antifungal natural peptides of different sources (animals, plants, micro-organisms), peptide fragments derived by proteolytic cleavage of precursor physiological proteins (cryptides), synthetic unnatural peptides and peptide derivatives. Antifungal peptides are schematically reported based on their structure, antifungal spectrum and reported effects. Natural or synthetic peptides and their modified derivatives may represent the basis for new compounds active against fungal infections.

"Antibiobodies", antibodies (Abs) with antibiotic activity, internal image of a Pichia anomala killer toxin (PaKT) characterized by microbicidal activity against microorganisms expressing β-glucans cell-wall receptors (PaKTRs), were produced by idiotypic vaccination with a PaKT-neutralizing monoclonal Ab (PaKT-like Abs) or induced by a protein-conjugated β-glucan. Human natural PaKT-like Abs (PaKTAbs) were found in the vaginal fluid of women infected with KT-sensitive microorganisms. Monoclonal and recombinant PaKT-like Abs, and PaKTAbs proved to be protective against experimental candidiasis, cryptococcosis and aspergillosis. A killer decapeptide (KP), synthesized from the sequence of a recombinant PaKT-like Ab or produced in transgenic plants, showed a microbicidal activity in vitro, neutralized by β-glucans, a therapeutic effect in vivo, against experimental mucosal and systemic mycoses, and a prophylactic role in planta, against phytopathogenic microorganisms, respectively. KP showed fungicidal properties against all the defective mutants of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae library, inclusive of strains recognized to be resistant to conventional antifungal drugs. KP inhibited in vitro, ex vivo and/or in vivo HIV-1 and Influenza A virus replication, owing to down-regulation of CCR5 co-receptors, physical block of the gp120-receptor interaction and reduction in the synthesis of glycoproteins, HA and M1 in particular. KP modulated the expression of costimulatory and MHC molecules on murine dendritic cells, improving their capacity to induce lymphocyte proliferation. KP, proven to be devoid of cytotoxicity on human cells, showed self-assembly-releasing hydrogel-like properties, catalyzed by β 1,3 glucan. PaKT's biotechnological derivatives may represent the prototypes of novel antifungal vaccines and anti-infective drugs characterized by different mechanisms of action.

The potential of anaflatoxin B1 (AnAFB1) conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) as a vaccine (AnAFB1-KLH) in controlling the carry over of the aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) metabolite aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in cow milk is reported. AFB1 is the most carcinogenic compound in food and foodstuffs amongst aflatoxins (AFs). AnAFB1 is AFB1 chemically modified as AFB1-1(O-carboxymethyl) oxime. In comparison to AFB1, AnAFB1 has proven to be non-toxic in vitro to human hepatocarcinoma cells and non mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium strains. AnAFB1-KLH was used for immunization of cows proving to induce a long lasting titer of anti-AFB1 IgG antibodies (Abs) which were cross reactive with AFB1, AFG1, and AFG2. The elicited anti-AFB1 Abs were able to hinder the secretion of AFM1 into the milk of cows continuously fed with AFB1. Vaccination of lactating animals with conjugated AnAFB1 may represent a solution to the public hazard constituted by milk and cheese contaminated with AFs.

Evidence from previous works disclosed the antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-tumour and/or immunomodulatory activity exerted, through different mechanisms of action, by peptides expressed in the complementarity-determining regions or even in the constant region of antibodies, independently from their specificity and isotype. Presently, we report the selection, from available databases, of peptide sequences encoded by immunoglobulin genes for the evaluation of their potential biological activities. Synthetic peptides representing the translated products of J lambda and J heavy genes proved to act in vitro against pathogenic fungi, entering yeast cells and causing their death, and exerted a therapeutic effect in a Galleria mellonella model of infection by Candida albicans. No haemolytic, cytotoxic and genotoxic effects were observed on mammalian cells. These findings raise the hypothesis that antibodies could be the evolutionary result of the adaptive combination of gene products ancestrally devoted to innate antimicrobial immunity.

Wolbachia can reduce the capability of mosquitoes to transmit infectious diseases to humans and is currently exploited in campaigns for the control of arboviruses, like dengue and Zika. Under the assumption that Wolbachia-mediated activation of insect immunity plays a role in the reduction of mosquito vectorial capacity, we focused our attention on the Wolbachia surface protein (WSP), a potential inductor of innate immunity. We hypothesized that the heterologous expression of this protein in gut-and tissue-associated symbionts may reduce parasite transmission. We thus engineered the mosquito bacterial symbiont Asaia to express WSP (Asaia WSP). Asaia WSP induced activation of the host immune response in Aedes aegypti and Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes, and inhibited the development of the heartworm parasite Dirofilaria immitis in Ae. aegypti. These results consolidate previous evidence on the immunestimulating property of WSP and make Asaia WSP worth of further investigations as a potential tool for the control of mosquito-borne diseases.

The incidence of life-threatening viral and microbial infections has dramatically increased over recent decades. Despite significant developments in anti-infective chemotherapy, many issues have increasingly narrowed the therapeutic options, making it imperative to discover new effective molecules. Among them, small peptides are arousing great interest. This review will focus in particular on a killer peptide, engineered from an anti-idiotypic recombinant antibody that mimics the activity of a wide-spectrum antimicrobial yeast killer toxin targeting β-glucan cell-wall receptors. The in vitro and in vivo antimicrobial, antiviral and immunomodulatory activities of killer peptide and its ability to spontaneously and reversibly self-assemble and slowly release its active dimeric form over time will be discussed as a novel paradigm of targeted auto-delivering drugs.

f Synthetic peptides encompassing sequences related to the complementarity-determining regions of antibodies or derived from their constant region (Fc peptides) were proven to exert differential antimicrobial, antiviral, antitumor, and/or immunomodulatory activities in vitro and/or in vivo, regardless of the specificity and isotype of the parental antibody. Alanine substitution derivatives of these peptides exhibited unaltered, increased, or decreased candidacidal activities in vitro. The bioactive IgG-derived Fc N10K peptide (NQVSLTCLVK) spontaneously self-assembles, a feature previously recognized as relevant for the therapeutic activity of another antibody-derived peptide. We evaluated the contribution of each residue to the peptide self-assembling capability by circular-dichroism spectroscopy. The interaction of the N10K peptide and its derivatives with Candida albicans cells was studied by confocal, transmission, and scanning electron microscopy. The apoptosis and autophagy induction profiles in yeast cells treated with the peptides were evaluated by flow cytometry, and the therapeutic efficacy against candidal infection was studied in a Galleria mellonella model. Overall, the results indicate a critical role for some residues in the self-assembly process and a correlation of that capability with the candidacidal activities of the peptides in vitro and their therapeutic effects in vivo.