SummaryGerminal centers (GC) are the main sites where antigen‐activated B‐cell clones expand and undergo immunoglobulin gene hypermutation and selection. Iterations of this process will lead to affinity maturation, replicating Darwinian evolution on the cellular level. GC B‐cell selection can lead to four different outcomes: further expansion and evolution, apoptosis (non‐selection), or output from the GC with differentiation into memory B cells or plasma cells. T‐helper cells in GC have been shown to have a central role in regulating B‐cell selection by sensing the density of major histocompatibility complex (MHC):peptide antigen complexes. Antigen is provided on follicular dendritic cells in the form of immune complex. Antibody on these immune complexes regulates antigen accessibility by shielding antigen from B‐cell receptor access. Replacement of antibody on immune complexes by antibody generated from GC‐derived plasma cell output will gradually reduce the availability of antigen. This antibody feedback can lead to a situation where a slow rise in selection stringency caused by a changing environment leads to directional evolution toward higher affinity antibody.

Inactivating mutations of the CREBBP and EP300 acetyltransferases are among the most common genetic alterations in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and follicular lymphoma (FL). Here, we examined the relationship between these two enzymes in germinal center (GC) B cells, the normal counterpart of FL and DLBCL, and in lymphomagenesis by using conditional GC-directed deletion mouse models targeting Crebbp or Ep300. We found that CREBBP and EP300 modulate common as well as distinct transcriptional programs implicated in separate anatomic and functional GC compartments. Consistently, deletion of Ep300 but not Crebbp impaired the fitness of GC B cells in vivo. Combined loss of Crebbp and Ep300 completely abrogated GC formation, suggesting that these proteins partially compensate for each other through common transcriptional targets. This synthetic lethal interaction was retained in CREBBP-mutant DLBCL cells and could be pharmacologically targeted with selective small molecule inhibitors of CREBBP and EP300 function. These data provide proof-of-principle for the clinical development of EP300-specific inhibitors in FL and DLBCL.

The contribution of chronic skin inflammation to the development of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is poorly understood. While the mitogen-activated protein kinase p38α regulates inflammatory responses and tumour development, little is known about the role of p38γ and p38δ in these processes. Here we show that combined p38γ and p38δ (p38γ/δ) deletion blocked skin tumour development in a chemically induced carcinogenesis model. p38γ/δ deletion reduced TPA-induced epidermal hyperproliferation and inflammation; it inhibited expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in keratinocytes in vitro and in whole skin in vivo, resulting in decreased neutrophil recruitment to skin. Our data indicate that p38γ/δ in keratinocytes promote carcinogenesis by enabling formation of a proinflammatory microenvironment that fosters epidermal hyperproliferation and tumourigenesis. These findings provide genetic evidence that p38γ and p38δ have essential roles in skin tumour development, and suggest that targeting inflammation through p38γ/δ offers a therapeutic strategy for SCC treatment and prevention.

Fifty percent of diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) cases lack cell-surface expression of the class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC-I), thus escaping recognition by cytotoxic T cells. Here we show that, across B cell lymphomas, loss of MHC-I, but not MHC-II, is preferentially restricted to DLBCL. To identify the involved mechanisms, we performed whole exome and targeted HLA deep-sequencing in 74 DLBCL samples, and found somatic inactivation of B2M and the HLA-I loci in 80% (34 of 42) of MHC-INEG tumors. Furthermore, 70% (22 of 32) of MHC-IPOS DLBCLs harbored monoallelic HLA-I genetic alterations (MHC-IPOS/mono), indicating allele-specific inactivation. MHC-INEG and MHC-IPOS/mono cases harbored significantly higher mutational burden and inferred neoantigen load, suggesting potential coselection of HLA-I loss and sustained neoantigen production. Notably, the analysis of >500,000 individuals across different cancer types revealed common germline HLA-I homozygosity, preferentially in DLBCL. In mice, germinal-center B cells lacking HLA-I expression did not progress to lymphoma and were counterselected in the context of oncogene-driven lymphomagenesis, suggesting that additional events are needed to license immune evasion. These results suggest a multistep process of HLA-I loss in DLBCL development including both germline and somatic events, and have direct implications for the pathogenesis and immunotherapeutic targeting of this disease.

Infection or vaccination leads to the development of germinal centers (GC) where B cells evolve high affinity antigen receptors, eventually producing antibody-forming plasma cells or memory B cells. Here we follow the migratory pathways of B cells emerging from germinal centers (BEM) and find that many BEM cells migrate into the lymph node subcapsular sinus (SCS) guided by sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). From the SCS, BEM cells may exit the lymph node to enter distant tissues, while some BEM cells interact with and take up antigen from SCS macrophages, followed by CCL21-guided return towards the GC. Disruption of local CCL21 gradients inhibits the recycling of BEM cells and results in less efficient adaption to antigenic variation. Our findings thus suggest that the recycling of antigen variant-specific BEM cells and transport of antigen back to GC may support affinity maturation to antigenic drift.

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Heterozygous inactivating mutations of the KMT2D methyltransferase and the CREBBP acetyltransferase are among the most common genetic alterations in B cell lymphoma and co-occur in 40 to 60% of follicular lymphoma (FL) and 30% of EZB/C3 diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) cases, suggesting they may be coselected. Here, we show that combined germinal center (GC)–specific haploinsufficiency of Crebbp and Kmt2d synergizes in vivo to promote the expansion of abnormally polarized GCs, a common preneoplastic event. These enzymes form a biochemical complex on select enhancers/superenhancers that are critical for the delivery of immune signals in the GC light zone and are only corrupted upon dual Crebbp / Kmt2d loss, both in mouse GC B cells and in human DLBCL. Moreover, CREBBP directly acetylates KMT2D in GC-derived B cells, and, consistently, its inactivation by FL/DLBCL-associated mutations abrogates its ability to catalyze KMT2D acetylation. Genetic and pharmacologic loss of CREBBP and the consequent decrease in KMT2D acetylation lead to reduced levels of H3K4me1, supporting a role for this posttranslational modification in modulating KMT2D activity. Our data identify a direct biochemical and functional interaction between CREBBP and KMT2D in the GC, with implications for their role as tumor suppressors in FL/DLBCL and for the development of precision medicine approaches targeting enhancer defects induced by their combined loss.

It is still not clear how B-cell receptor (BCR) signalling intensity affects plasma cell and germinal centre (GC) B cell differentiation. We generated Cγ1Cre/+Ptpn6fl/fl mice where SHP-1, a negative regulator of BCR signalling, is deleted rapidly after B cell activation. Although immunisation with T-dependent antigens increased BCR signalling, it led to plasma cells reduction and increased apoptosis. Dependent on the antigen, the early GC B cell response was equally reduced and apoptosis increased. At the same time, a higher proportion of GC B cells expressed cMYC, indicating increased GC B cell – Tfh cell interactions. While GC B cell numbers returned to normal at later stages, affinity maturation was suppressed in the long term. This confirms that BCR signalling not only directs affinity dependent B cell selection but also, without adequate Tfh cell help, can inflict cell death, which may be important for the maintenance of B cell tolerance.