Ten years after PCV clearance following the second outbreak, due to strict adherence to biosecurity protocols and based on ongoing sentinel diagnostic monitoring (currently monthly), the herd remains DPF including PCV negative.

Inflammation itself may suppress ovarian function, or indicate immune challenges that lead to ovarian suppression. The timing of menarche may also influence adult inflammatory sensitivity and ovarian hormone concentrations. This lends support to existing models of trade-offs between maintenance and reproduction in women.

3 Sarna A, Porwal A, Ramesh S, et al. Characterisation of the types of anaemia prevalent among children and adolescents aged 1-19 years in India: a population-based study.

Human milk contains essential micronutrients for growth and development during early life. Environmental pollutants, such as potentially toxic metals, can also be transferred to the infant through human milk. These elements have been well-studied, but changing diets and environments and advances in laboratory technology require re-examining these elements in a variety of settings. The aim of this study was to characterize the concentrations of essential and toxic metals in human milk from four diverse populations. Human milk samples (n = 70) were collected in Argentina (n = 21), Namibia (n = 6), Poland (n = 23), and the United States (n = 20) using a standardized mid-feed collection procedure. Milk concentrations of calcium, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, lead, arsenic, and cadmium were determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). We used standard multiple linear regression models to evaluate differences among populations, while including infant age, infant sex, and maternal parity status (multiparous or primiparous) as covariates. Concentrations of all elements, except zinc, varied across populations after controlling for infant age, infant sex, and maternal parity. Calcium and magnesium showed more differences across populations than iron or copper. There were no significant differences among population in zinc concentrations. Mean concentrations of lead, but not arsenic, were low compared to recently published values from other populations. The concentrations of trace elements in human milk are variable among populations. Limitations due to small sample sizes and environmental contamination of some samples prevent us from drawing robust conclusions about the causes of these differences.

Aim As the COVID‐19 pandemic evolves, human milk banks world‐wide continue to provide donor human milk to vulnerable infants who lack access to mother's own milk. Under these circumstances, ensuring the safety of donor human milk is paramount, as the risk of vertical transmission of SARS‐CoV‐2 is not fully understood. Here, we investigate the inactivation of SARS‐CoV‐2 in human milk by pasteurisation and the stability of SARS‐CoV‐2 in human milk under cold storage. Methods SARS‐CoV‐2 was experimentally inoculated into human milk samples from healthy donors or into a control medium. Triplicates of each sample were layered onto uninfected cells after Holder pasteurisation (63°C for 30 min), heating to 56°C for 30 min, or after 48 h of storage at 4°C or −30°C. Infectious titres of virus were determined at 72 h post‐infection by endpoint titration. Results Following heating to 63°C or 56°C for 30 min, replication competent (i.e. live) SARS‐CoV‐2 was undetected in both human milk and the control medium. Cold storage of SARS‐CoV‐2 in human milk (either at 4°C or −30°C) did not significantly impact infectious viral load over a 48 h period. Conclusion SARS‐CoV‐2 is effectively inactivated by Holder pasteurisation, suggesting that existing milk bank processes will effectively mitigate the risk of transmission of SARS‐COV‐2 to vulnerable infants through pasteurised donor human milk. The demonstrated stability of SARS‐CoV‐2 in refrigerated or frozen human milk may assist in the development of guidelines around safe expressing and storing of milk from COVID‐19 infected mothers.