We present the full public release of all data from the Illustris simulation project. Illustris is a suite of large volume, cosmological hydrodynamical simulations run with the moving-mesh code Arepo and including a comprehensive set of physical models critical for following the formation and evolution of galaxies across cosmic time. Each simulates a volume of (106.5 Mpc) 3 and self-consistently evolves five different types of resolution elements from a starting redshift of z = 127 to the present day, z = 0. These components are: dark matter particles, gas cells, passive gas tracers, stars and stellar wind particles, and supermassive black holes. This data release includes the snapshots at all 136 available redshifts, halo and subhalo catalogs at each snapshot, and two distinct merger trees. Six primary realizations of the Illustris volume are released, including the flagship Illustris-1 run. These include three resolution levels with the fiducial "full" baryonic physics model, and a dark matter only analog for each. In addition, we provide four distinct, high time resolution, smaller volume "subboxes". The total data volume is ∼265 TB, including ∼800 full volume snapshots and ∼30,000 subbox snapshots. We describe the released data products as well as tools we have developed for their analysis. All data may be directly downloaded in its native HDF5 format. Additionally, we release a comprehensive, web-based API which allows programmatic access to search and data processing tasks. In both cases we provide example scripts and a getting-started guide in several languages: currently, IDL, Python, and Matlab. This paper addresses scientific issues relevant for the interpretation of the simulations, serves as a pointer to published and on-line documentation of the project, describes planned future additional data releases, and discusses technical aspects of the release.

We report multiple lines of evidence for a stochastic signal that is correlated among 67 pulsars from the 15 yr pulsar timing data set collected by the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves. The correlations follow the Hellings–Downs pattern expected for a stochastic gravitational-wave background. The presence of such a gravitational-wave background with a power-law spectrum is favored over a model with only independent pulsar noises with a Bayes factor in excess of 1014, and this same model is favored over an uncorrelated common power-law spectrum model with Bayes factors of 200–1000, depending on spectral modeling choices. We have built a statistical background distribution for the latter Bayes factors using a method that removes interpulsar correlations from our data set, finding p = 10−3 (≈3σ) for the observed Bayes factors in the null no-correlation scenario. A frequentist test statistic built directly as a weighted sum of interpulsar correlations yields p = 5 × 10−5 to 1.9 × 10−4 (≈3.5σ–4σ). Assuming a fiducial f −2/3 characteristic strain spectrum, as appropriate for an ensemble of binary supermassive black hole inspirals, the strain amplitude is 2.4 − 0.6 + 0.7 × 10 − 15 (median + 90% credible interval) at a reference frequency of 1 yr−1. The inferred gravitational-wave background amplitude and spectrum are consistent with astrophysical expectations for a signal from a population of supermassive black hole binaries, although more exotic cosmological and astrophysical sources cannot be excluded. The observation of Hellings–Downs correlations points to the gravitational-wave origin of this signal.

We assess the contribution of dynamical hardening by direct three-body scattering interactions to the rate of stellar-mass black hole binary (BHB) mergers in galactic nuclei. We derive an analytic model for the single-binary encounter rate in a nucleus with spherical and disk components hosting a super-massive black hole (SMBH). We determine the total number of encounters N GW needed to harden a BHB to the point that inspiral due to gravitational wave emission occurs before the next three-body scattering event. This is done independently for both the spherical and disk components. Using a Monte Carlo approach, we refine our calculations for N GW to include gravitational wave emission between scattering events. For astrophysically plausible models we find that typically N GW 10. We find two separate regimes for the efficient dynamical hardening of BHBs: (1) spherical star clusters with high central densities, low velocity dispersions and no significant Keplerian component; and (2) migration traps in disks around SMBHs lacking any significant spherical stellar component in the vicinity of the migration trap, which is expected due to effective orbital inclination reduction of any spherical population by the disk. We also find a weak correlation between the ratio of the second-order velocity moment to velocity dispersion in galactic nuclei and the rate of BHB mergers, where this ratio is a proxy for the ratio between the rotation-and dispersion-supported components. Because disks enforce planar interactions that are efficient in hardening BHBs, particularly in migration traps, they have high merger rates that can contribute significantly to the rate of BHB mergers detected by the advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory.

Gravitational-wave recoil of merging supermassive black holes (SMBHs) may influence the co-evolution of SMBHs and their host galaxies. We examine this possibility using smoothed particle hydrodynamic/N-body simulations of gaseous galaxy mergers, including SMBH accretion, in which the merged BH receives a recoil kick. This enables us to follow the trajectories and accretion of recoiling BHs in self-consistent, evolving merger remnants. In contrast to recent studies on similar topics, we conduct a large parameter study, generating a suite of over 200 simulations with more than 60 merger models and a range of recoil velocities (v k ). With this, we can identify systematic trends in the behaviour of recoiling BHs. Our main results are as follows. (1) BHs kicked at nearly the central escape speed (v esc ) may oscillate on large orbits for up to a Hubble time, but in gas-rich mergers, BHs kicked with up to ∼0.7v esc may be confined to the central few kpc of the galaxy, owing to gas drag and steep central potentials.(2) v esc in gas-rich mergers may increase rapidly during final coalescence, in which case recoil trajectories may depend sensitively on the timing of the BH merger relative to the formation of the central potential well. Delays of even a few times 10 7 yr in the BH merger time may substantially suppress recoiling BH motion for a fixed kick speed. (3) Recoil events generally reduce the lifetimes of bright active galactic nuclei (AGNs), but short-period recoil oscillations may actually extend AGN lifetimes at lower luminosities. (4) Bondi-Hoyle accretion dominates recoiling BH growth for v k /v esc 0.6-0.8; for higher v k , the BH accretes primarily from its ejected gas disc, which we model as a time-dependent accretion disc. (5) Kinematically offset AGNs may be observable either immediately after a high-velocity recoil or during pericentric passages through a gas-rich remnant. In either case, AGN lifetimes may be up to ∼10 Myr (for v > 800 km s −1 ), though the latter generally have higher luminosities. (6) Spatially offset AGNs can occur for v k 0.5-0.7v esc (for R > 1 kpc); these generally have low luminosities and lifetimes of ∼1-100 Myr. (7) Rapidly recoiling BHs may be up to approximately five times less massive than their stationary counterparts. These mass deficits lower the normalization of the M BH -σ * relation and contribute to both intrinsic and overall scatter. (8) Finally, the displacement of AGN feedback after a recoil event enhances central star formation rates in the merger remnant, thereby extending the starburst phase of the merger and creating a denser, more massive stellar cusp.

The role of galaxy mergers in fueling active galactic nuclei (AGN) is still debated, owing partly to selection effects inherent to studies of the merger/AGN connection. In particular, luminous AGN are often obscured in late-stage mergers. Mid-infrared (IR) color selection of dust-enshrouded AGN with, e.g., the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) has uncovered large new populations of obscured AGN. However, this method is sensitive mainly to AGN that dominate emission from the host. To understand how selection biases affect mid-IR studies of the merger/AGN connection, we simulate the evolution of AGN throughout galaxy mergers. Although mid-IR colors closely trace luminous, obscured AGN, we show that nearly half of merger-triggered AGN are missed with common mid-IR selection criteria, even in latestage, gas-rich major mergers. At z < ∼ 0.5, where merger signatures and dual nuclei can most easily be detected, we find that a more lenient W 1 − W 2 > 0.5 cut greatly improves completeness without significantly decreasing reliability. Extreme nuclear starbursts are briefly able to mimic this AGN signature, but this is largely irrelevant in mergers, where such starbursts are accompanied by AGN. We propose a two-color cut that yields high completeness and reliability even in starbursting systems. Further, we show that mid-IR color selection very effectively identifies dual AGN hosts, with the highest fraction at the smallest separations (< 3 kpc). Thus, many merger hosts of mid-IR AGN should contain unresolved dual AGN; these are ideal targets for high-resolution follow-up, particularly with the James Webb Space Telescope.

Mergers of galaxies are thought to cause significant gas inflows to the inner parsecs, which can activate rapid accretion onto supermassive black holes (SMBHs), giving rise to Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN). During a significant fraction of this process, SMBHs are predicted to be enshrouded by gas and dust. Studying 52 galactic nuclei in infrared-selected local Luminous and Ultra-luminous infrared galaxies in different merger stages in the hard X-ray band, where radiation is less affected by absorption, we find that the amount of material around SMBHs increases during the last phases of the merger. We find that the fraction of Compton-thick (CT, N H 10 24 cm −2 ) AGN in late merger galaxies is higher (f CT = 65 +12 −13 %) than in local hard X-ray selected AGN (f CT = 27 ± 4%), and that obscuration reaches its maximum when the nuclei of the two merging galaxies are at a projected distance of D 12 ≃ 0.4 − 10.8 kiloparsecs (f CT = 77 +13 −17 %). We also find that all AGN of our sample in late merger galaxies have N H > 10 23 cm −2 , which implies that the obscuring material covers 95 +4 −8 % of the X-ray source. These observations show that the material is most effectively funnelled from the galactic scale to the inner tens of parsecs during the late stages of galaxy mergers, and that the close environment of SMBHs in advanced mergers is richer in gas and dust with respect to that of SMBHs in isolated galaxies, and cannot be explained by the classical AGN unification model in which the torus is responsible for the obscuration.

Supermassive black hole (BH) mergers produce powerful gravitational wave (GW) emission. Asymmetry in this emission imparts a recoil kick to the merged BH, which can eject the BH from its host galaxy altogether. Recoiling BHs could be observed as offset active galactic nuclei (AGN). Several candidates have been identified, but systematic searches have been hampered by large uncertainties regarding their observability. By extracting merging BHs and host galaxy properties from the Illustris cosmological simulations, we have developed a comprehensive model for recoiling AGN. Here, for the first time, we model the effects of BH spin alignment and recoil dynamics based on the gas-richness of host galaxies. We predict that if BH spins are not highly aligned, seeing-limited observations could resolve offset AGN, making them promising targets for all-sky surveys. For randomly-oriented spins, < ∼ 10 spatially-offset AGN may be detectable in HST-COSMOS, and > 10 3 could be found with Pan-STARRS, LSST, Euclid, and WFIRST. Nearly a thousand velocity-offset AGN are predicted within the SDSS footprint; the rarity of large broad-line offsets among SDSS quasars is likely due in part to selection effects but suggests that spin alignment plays a role in suppressing recoils. Nonetheless, in our most physically motivated model where alignment occurs only in gas-rich mergers, hundreds of offset AGN should be found in all-sky surveys. Our findings strongly motivate a dedicated search for recoiling AGN.

The 15 yr pulsar timing data set collected by the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav) shows positive evidence for the presence of a low-frequency gravitational-wave (GW) background. In this paper, we investigate potential cosmological interpretations of this signal, specifically cosmic inflation, scalar-induced GWs, first-order phase transitions, cosmic strings, and domain walls. We find that, with the exception of stable cosmic strings of field theory origin, all these models can reproduce the observed signal. When compared to the standard interpretation in terms of inspiraling supermassive black hole binaries (SMBHBs), many cosmological models seem to provide a better fit resulting in Bayes factors in the range from 10 to 100. However, these results strongly depend on modeling assumptions about the cosmic SMBHB population and, at this stage, should not be regarded as evidence for new physics. Furthermore, we identify excluded parameter regions where the predicted GW signal from cosmological sources significantly exceeds the NANOGrav signal. These parameter constraints are independent of the origin of the NANOGrav signal and illustrate how pulsar timing data provide a new way to constrain the parameter space of these models. Finally, we search for deterministic signals produced by models of ultralight dark matter (ULDM) and dark matter substructures in the Milky Way. We find no evidence for either of these signals and thus report updated constraints on these models. In the case of ULDM, these constraints outperform torsion balance and atomic clock constraints for ULDM coupled to electrons, muons, or gluons.