As public concern over greenwashing has grown in the last two decades, academic research has increased correspondingly, and there is now a substantial body of research addressing issues related to greenwashing. In this paper, we therefore review and analyze greenwashing research, to provide an evaluation of trends and progress in the field and a synthesis of the empirical and conceptual results presented in existing studies. Our main finding leading to our theory contribution is the criticism raised in greenwashing research that the entirely voluntary CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) approach facilitates the diffusion of greenwashing. The voluntary idea of CSR is still prevalent in the CSR literature and appears to be a grey-zone that creates space for misleading 'green' communication. Consequently, we propose that greenwashing could be better prevented with a combination of voluntary and mandatory aspects. The new paradigm should promote creative and effective corporate CSR initiatives, while at the same time design the limits and the rules for their accomplishments and communication, as firms would risk breaching legislation when overstretching CSR messages.
Iron-containing nickel sulfides, selenides, and sulfoselenides were synthesized via a simple two-step hydrothermal reaction (temperature ≤ 160 °C) for their application as electrocatalysts in the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in an alkaline solution (1 mol L−1 KOH). The study demonstrated that iron-containing nickel cobalt sulfides and selenides exhibit superior OER performance with lower overpotentials compared to iron-free nickel cobalt sulfide and selenide, which highlights the significant role of iron in enhancing OER nickel cobalt electrocatalysts: Fe0.1Ni1.4Co2.9(S0.87O0.13)4, η50 = 318 mV; Fe0.2Ni1.5Co2.8(S0.9O0.1)4, η50 = 310 mV; Fe0.3Ni1.2Co2.5(S0.9O0.1)4, η50 = 294 mV; Fe0.6Ni1.2Co2.5(S0.83O0.17)4, η50 = 294 mV; Fe0.4Ni0.7Co1.6(Se0.81O0.19)4, η50 = 306 mV compared to Ni1.0Co2.1(S0.9O0.1)4, η50 = 346 mV; and Ni0.7Co1.4(Se0.85O0.15)4, η50 = 355 mV (all values at current densities η50 of 50 mA cm−2). Furthermore, the iron-containing nickel cobalt sulfoselenide Fe0.5Ni1.0Co2.0(S0.57Se0.25O0.18)4 displayed exceptional OER performance with η50 = 277 mV, surpassing the benchmark RuO2 electrode with η50 = 299 mV. The superior performance of the sulfoselenide was attributed to its low charge transfer resistance (Rct) of 0.8 Ω at 1.5 V vs. the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE). Moreover, the sulfoselenide demonstrated remarkable stability, with only a minimal increase in overpotential (η50) from 277 mV to 279 mV after a 20 h chronopotentiometry test. These findings suggest that trimetallic iron, nickel and cobalt sulfide, selenide, and especially sulfoselenide materials hold promise as high-performance, cost-effective, and durable electrocatalysts for sustainable OER reactions. This study provides a valuable approach for the development of efficient electrocatalytic materials, contributing to the advancement of renewable energy technologies.
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