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The Maillard reaction (MR), despite its impact on flavor, color, and texture of cereal products, must be controlled for possible deleterious effects on protein nutritional quality. The present study aims to simultaneously monitor three indicators of the MR reaction (acid-released lysine, furosine, and carboxymethyllysine (CML)) by GC/MS in model cookies and evaluate the effect of formulation and baking temperature. Whereas furosine followed a bell-shape kinetic, indicative of an intermediary compound, CML linearly accumulated, proving to be a good indicator of the advanced MR. Acid-released lysine continuously decreased during baking. A reference baking level was defined to compare differently processed cookies using fluorescence synchronous spectra, highly sensitive to the dough physicochemical properties. Furosine was maximal in glucose-containing cookies, but only accounted for 5-50% lysine blockage, depending on the sugar and baking temperature. High oven temperatures and the use of fructose as the sugar source were associated with lowest the lysine damage and CML formation.

The study of the health impact of dietary Maillard products (MPs) in realistic clinical studies requires the design of nutritionally equivalent diets with high and low levels of MPs. This difficult challenge may be achieved by setting the high-MP diet at the regular daily level, where the common use of grilling, frying, and roasting processes allows significant amounts of carboxymethyllysine, hydroxymethylfurfural and acrylamide to be formed. In such conditions, we show that major lipid degradation does not occur, nor does degradation of vitamin E or thiamine. Based on this finding, the low-MP diet; must be constructed accordingly, by replacing all high-temperature techniques with steam cooking or the absence of cooking. The cooking fat must be replaced with similar raw fat as seasoning in the low-MP diet, the high caloric density resulting from water loss in the high-MP diet must be compensated by higher food quantities offered in the low-MP diet, and the vitamin loss in fruit and vegetables resulting from high temperatures in the high-MP diet can be circumvented by increasing the corresponding portion size. In the ICARE study, equilibrated diets were proposed, fulfilling all nutritional needs, but with a 3- to 45-fold difference in MP concentrations. Individual quantification of nutritional and MP intakes will ensure the nutritional equivalence of the two diets and allow for quantification of the specific impact of ingested MPs.

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