BackgroundAs a consequence of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, prevalences of mental disorders are elevated in Rwanda. More knowledge about determinants of mental stress can help to improve mental health services and treatment in the east-central African country. The present study aimed to investigate actual rates of mental stress (posttraumatic stress disorder, syndromal depression and syndromal anxiety) in Rwanda and to examine if gender, persecution during the genocide, readiness to reconcile as well as importance given to religiosity and quality of religiosity are predictors of mental stress.MethodsThe study comprised a community sample of N = 200 Rwandans from Rwanda’s capital Kigali, who experienced the Rwandan genocide. By conducting structured interviews, ten local Master level psychologists examined types of potentially lifetime traumatic events, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety, readiness to reconcile and religiosity. Applying non-recursive structural equation modeling (SEM), the associations between gender, persecution, readiness to reconcile, religiosity and mental stress were investigated.ResultsRespondents had experienced an average number of 11.38 types of potentially lifetime traumatic events. Of the total sample, 11% met diagnostic criteria for PTSD, 19% presented with syndromal depression and 23% with syndromal anxiety. Female sex, persecution and readiness to reconcile were significant predictors of mental stress. Twofold association was found between centrality of religion (which captures the importance given to religiosity) and mental stress, showing, that higher mental stress provokes a higher centrality and that higher centrality reduces mental stress. The variables positive and negative religious functioning (which determine the quality of religiosity) respectively had an indirect negative and positive effect on mental stress.ConclusionsStudy results provide evidence that rates of mental stress are still elevated in Rwanda and that female sex, persecution, readiness to reconcile, centrality and religious functioning are predictors of mental stress. Seventeen years after the genocide, there remains a large gap between the need for and provision of mental health services in Rwanda. Results underline the importance of improving the respective infrastructure, with a focus on the requirements of women and persons, who were persecuted during the genocide. They further highlight that the consideration of readiness to reconcile, centrality and religious functioning in therapeutic interventions can aid mental health in Rwanda.
The objectives of this study were to investigate rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) KEYWORDS appetitive aggression, combat trauma, exposure to violence, genocide, perpetrators, posttraumatic stress disorder, RwandaDuring the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, it is estimated that nearly 1 million people were murdered over the course of 3 months. Fighting erupted between two artificially divided "ethnic" groups, the Hutu majority and the Tutsi minority. The main goal of the perpetrators of the genocide was to eliminate the Tutsi minority and the Hutu opponents. Many people, including ordinary citizens, either willingly joined the slaughter or did so under
Since the 2001 official abolishment of ethnic specification in Rwanda, it is prohibited to classify individuals into ethnic groups in the postgenocide country. For the first time to our knowledge, this study compiles objective data on ethnic perception in Rwanda to investigate whether interethnic bias is still prevalent. It is hypothesized that Rwandans who were not persecuted during the genocide still associate Tutsis with privilege and not with victimization, instead of their persecution during the genocide. This hypothesis was tested with a computer-based priming task, in which photos of persons who conformed to stereotypes of Tutsi and Hutu appearance, respectively, were combined with pictures of symbols representing privilege and victimization. Results showed that responsiveness to the Tutsi-privilege combinations was higher compared with the Hutu-privilege combinations. No differences were found in the responsiveness to the Tutsi-and Hutu-victimization combinations. Perception of Tutsis as privileged was independent of readiness to reconcile.
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