Illegal hunting, driven by demand for bushmeat, threatens animal populations throughout Africa. While bushmeat consumption is thought to be common in the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem (TME) of Northern Tanzania, its magnitude and drivers are not well understood. This lack of knowledge may inhibit effective mitigation policies. We conducted 394 household interviews in the TME in 2013 and 2014 to assess both the scale and the possible drivers of bushmeat availability and consumption in the ecosystem. Using generalized linear mixed models, information theoretic model selection, and accounting for spatial clustering of the interviews, we tested multiple hypotheses that underlie bushmeat consumption. Bushmeat consumption in the TME was found to be widespread among the local population. Surprisingly, we found little differences in reported bushmeat consumption between survey years (2013: 38%; 2014: 33% of interviewees). Pastoral Maasai admitted to consuming bushmeat significantly less often (2013: 29%; 2014: 26%) than non-Maasai (2013: 38%; 2014: 34%). Interestingly, none of the hypothesized spatial- or household-level factors consistently correlated with reported bushmeat consumption. Neither alternative sources of available animal protein, nor relative wealth affected bushmeat consumption. In conjunction with the relatively low price of bushmeat (half the price of domestic meat), these results suggest that bushmeat consumption is largely driven by its availability and low cost, and only to a small degree by cultural differences. Thus, conservation interventions will likely be most successful if they holistically manage to increase the cost of bushmeat relative to alternative protein sources.

Background: Acylcarnitines play an important role in fuel metabolism in skeletal muscle. Objective: To assess acylcarnitine ester utilization by the hindlimb of horses at rest and following low intensity exercise and carnitine supplementation. Animals and methods: Acylcarnitine ester uptake by the hindlimb was investigated using the arteriovenous difference technique. Blood from six warmblood mares (mean age 12 § 3 (SD) years and weighing 538 § 39 kg) was collected simultaneously from the transverse facial artery and from the caudal vena cava. Food was withheld for 12 hours prior to exercise. Exercise comprised a standardized treadmill protocol consisting of 5 minutes of walk, 20 minutes of trot and thereafter another 5 minutes of walk. At the end of the first exercise day, three horses were given carnitine supplementation (100 mg/kg bodyweight), whereas the other horses received saline. The next day the exercise was repeated and blood samples collected similarly. Free carnitine and acylcarnitines were analyzed as their butyl ester derivatives in heparinized plasma by electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Statistical analysis was performed using a general linear mixed model. Results: C3-carnitine, C6-carnitine and C14:1-carnitine showed the largest average extraction by the hindlimb at rest and C3-carnitine, C5:1-carnitine and C16-carnitine immediately after low-intensity exercise. Carnitine supplementation significantly increased free carnitine, C5-carnitine and C8-carnitine extraction. Conclusion: Carnitine supplementation altered the extraction of acylcarnitines by the hindlimb in horses exercising at low intensity. Clinical importance: Findings might aid in optimizing performance and myopathy prevention of the equine athlete.

Further investigation is necessary into the specific role of leucine supplementation to preserve or restore body protein in horses.