Several species from the Brassica genus are very important agricultural crops in different parts of the world and are also known to be heavy metal accumulators. There have been a large number of studies regarding the tolerance, uptake and defense mechanism in several of these species, notably Brassica juncea and B. napus, against the stress induced by heavy metals. Numerous studies have also been published about the capacity of these species to be used for phytoremediation purposes but with mixed results. This review will focus on the latest developments in the study of the uptake capacity, oxidative damage and biochemical and physiological tolerance and defense mechanisms to heavy metal toxicity on six economically important species: B. juncea, B. napus, B. oleracea, B. carinata, B. rapa and B. nigra.

In this study, the lipophilic and hydrophilic phenol composition of virgin olive oils (VOO) obtained from olives from two of the most important Portuguese cultivars ('Galega Vulgar' and 'Cobrançosa'), harvested at different ripening stages and under two irrigation schemes (rain fed and irrigated), was evaluated. Phenolic alcohols (hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol), phenolic acids and derivatives and flavonoids (luteolin and apigenin), as well as tocopherols were quantified. Lipophilic (>300mgkg(-1)) and hydrophilic phenols (>600mgkg(-1)) were present in high contents in both VOO, for early ripening stages. Gamma-tocopherol content is higher in 'Galega Vulgar' VOO. Total phenols showed a decrease between ripening index 2.5 and 3.5. The dialdehydic form of elenolic acid linked to hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA-EDA), also known as oleacein, was the major phenolic compound identified in both oils. The concentration of free hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol in both VOO is very low while their esterified derivatives, like 3,4-DHPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EDA, are much more abundant.

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Aroma compounds of virgin olive oils extracted from two olive cultivars-Galega Vulgar and Cobrançosagrown in Beira Baixa region in central Portugal were investigated. Gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) was carried out to select the important odorants for subsequent comprehensive gas chromatography/time of flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-ToFMS) analysis. By GC-O fifteen odorants were identified. For the quantification of volatile compounds, headspace solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique was optimized. Under optimized conditions, 22 volatile compounds were quantified in all samples. Trans-2-hexenal was the most abundant compound. A discriminant analysis (DA) was used to discriminate among olive oil samples obtained from olives of the two cultivars with different harvest time/ripening stages. Concerning the harvesting time and cultivar, nine volatiles showed to have discriminant power among samples, namely heptanal, trans-2-hexenal, 1-octen-1-ol, nonanal, 2,3-butanedione, ethyl-2-methylbutyrate, hexanal, cis-3-hexenylacetate and 3-methylbuthylacetate.

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acid in olive oils were observed. The ripening stage of fruits showed to be a key factor on the amount and profile of bioactive compounds of olive oil.

This work aims at presenting the state-of-the-art about the influence of the activity of olive endogenous enzymes, as well as of the application of adjuvants in olive oil technology, discussing their influence on the composition of virgin olive oil, especially in phenols and volatile compounds.

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