Epigenetic processes, including DNA methylation, change reliably with age across the lifespan, such that DNA methylation can be used as an “epigenetic clock”. This epigenetic clock can be used to predict age and age acceleration, which occurs when methylation-based prediction of age exceeds chronological age and has been associated with increased mortality. In the current study we examined epigenetic age acceleration using saliva samples collected from children between ages 6–13 (N = 101). Children’s exposure to neighborhood violence and heart rate during a stressful task were assessed. Age acceleration was associated with children’s direct experience of violence (p = 0.004) and with decreased heart rate (p = 0.002). Children who were predicted to be older than their chronological age had twice as much violence exposure as other children and their heart rate was similar to that of adults. The results remained significant after controlling for demographic variables, such as sex, income and education. This is the first study to show the effects of direct violence exposure on epigenetic aging in children using salivary DNA. Although longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether accelerated epigenetic aging leads to adverse health outcomes later in life, these data point to DNA methylation during childhood as a putative biological mechanism.

Objectives-To determine the effects of training in swimming and water safety on young preschool children's ability to recover safely from a simulated episode of falling into a swimming pool. Design-Randomized trial of 12 or eight weeks' duration water safety and swimming lessons for children 24 to 42 months old.Outcome measures-Swimming ability, deck behavior, water recovery, and swimming to side after jumping into pool were measured before, during, and after the training program. Results-109 children completed the study (61 in the 12 week group, 48 in the eight week group). The average age was 34-2 months, 54% were male. Swimming ability, deck behavior, water recovery, and jump and swim skills improved over baseline levels in both groups. By the end of training, the 12 week group improved more than the eight week group only in swimming ability. Improvements in water recovery and jump and swim skills were associated positively with changes in swimming ability. Conclusions-Swimming ability and safety skills of young preschool children can be improved through training. Such programs may offer some protection for children at risk ofdrowning and there was no indication that this program increased the risk of drowning. However, pool fencing, other barriers around water, and parental supervision still remain the most important prevention strategies to reduce drowning in young children. (Injury Prevention 1995; 1: 228-233)

Trauma and PTSD in parents may impact parental distress and child abuse potential, potentially increasing children's risk for not only the experience of child abuse, but also PTSD. Child and family interventions should consider child and parental trauma and PTSD as important factors to address. (PsycINFO Database Record

Parental availability influences fear expression and learning across species, but the effect of maternal buffering on fear learning in humans is unknown. Here we investigated the effect of maternal availability during fear conditioning in a group of children (ages 8–10) and adolescents (ages 11–13) from a low-income population with a range of trauma exposure. Acoustic startle response data were collected to measure fear-potentiated startle (FPS) in 104 participants. A total of 62 participants were tested with the mother available and 42 when the mother was not in the testing room. We observed that maternal availability during fear conditioning interacted with age to affect FPS discrimination between CS+ and CS–. In line with previous findings suggesting an absence of maternal buffering in adolescents, fear discrimination was affected by maternal availability only in children. Second, we observed that the effect of maternal buffering on FPS discrimination in children was not influenced by maternally reported warmth. In conclusion, we demonstrated that maternal availability improved discrimination in children, regardless of the quality of the relationship. Adolescents discriminated irrespective of maternal status, suggesting that childhood may be a sensitive period for environmental influences on key processes such as learning of danger and safety signals.

Mothers with a history of child sexual abuse report less warmth toward their children, but whether this association differs by child gender is unknown. We examined the association of maternal child sexual abuse and warmth across child gender, accounting for depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and child physical abuse. We verbally administered self-report measures to a cross-sectional sample of 154 mothers with a child between 8 and 12 years old. Eighty-five mothers based warmth responses on a son, and 69 on a daughter. We conducted a hierarchical multiple regression, including child gender, maternal child sexual abuse, child physical abuse, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and 4 two-way interaction terms with child gender. Maternal depression predicted decreased warmth, regardless of child gender, and maternal child sexual abuse predicted decreased warmth, but only toward daughters. Given previous research suggesting that maternal warmth predicts child well-being, the current finding may represent an important avenue of intergenerational transmission of risk in girls.

Objectives: Parental posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) increases children's risk for emotional and behavioral problems. We examined parenting stress and parenting behavior quality as mediators of the relation between maternal PTSD and problematic child behaviors in a sample at high risk for trauma exposure. We also examined whether child sex moderated this association. Method: Participants were 141 African American mother-child dyads (children aged 8 -12). Mothers reported PTSD severity, parenting stress, and child behavior (externalizing, internalizing, and emotional self-control). Parenting behavior quality (accounting for factors including parental warmth and engagement) was assessed from an observational parent-child interaction task. Results: Parenting stress, but not observed parenting behavior quality, mediated the relation between maternal PTSD severity and child behaviors. Child sex moderated this association, such that the effect was stronger for girls. Conclusions: Maternal PTSD may be associated with negative child behavior outcomes, and this relation appears to be mediated by increased parenting stress. Stress-reducing interventions for parents with PTSD could improve child outcomes, especially for girls. Clinical Impact StatementParental posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) increases children's risk for emotional and behavioral problems. We examined behavioral factors that may drive this association, specifically, maternal stress and parenting quality. We studied 141 low-income African American mother-child dyads; most had high trauma exposure and were in single-parent households. We found that parenting stress, but not observed parenting behavior quality, contributed to the association between maternal PTSD severity and child behaviors, and this effect was stronger for girls.

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BackgroundInjuries from all-terrain vehicles (ATV) often result in head injuries with substantial risk of death and disability. Despite these risks, helmet use is less than 50%.ObjectiveTo identify barriers to helmet use in ATV users.MethodsModerator guides were framed using the health belief model of behaviour change. Focus groups were conducted with adolescent and adult ATV users to discuss ATV use. Transcript-based analysis was used, and data was managed using HyperRESEARCH(2.8.3). The transcribed data was coded to identify important themes.Results11 focus groups were conducted with 58 participants, who discussed use patterns, current safety practices, and barriers to using helmets. Preliminary themes were a lack of perceived risk of ATV injury and underestimation of likely injury severity. Less frequently, barriers included helmet discomfort, cost, and inconvenience. Suggested solutions were helmet laws for riders <18 years old, helmet redesign, and development of visual aids/crash simulations to convey dangers of ATV use.ConclusionsOur study identifies risk misperception among ATV riders. Injury prevention should focus on education regarding risks of unsafe ATV behaviours and the danger of the vehicles themselves. Once risks are better understood by users, other interventions including helmet redesign and distribution may be more effective.