The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not reflect the official position of the organizations with which they are affiliated.We thank three anonymous reviewers for comments on earlier versions of this article.

This article provides a review of the training and development literature since the year 2000. We review the literature focusing on the benefits of training and development for individuals and teams, organizations, and society. We adopt a multidisciplinary, multilevel, and global perspective to demonstrate that training and development activities in work organizations can produce important benefits for each of these stakeholders. We also review the literature on needs assessment and pretraining states, training design and delivery, training evaluation, and transfer of training to identify the conditions under which the benefits of training and development are maximized. Finally, we identify research gaps and offer directions for future research.

Organizations in the United States alone spend billions on training each year. These training and development activities allow organizations to adapt, compete, excel, innovate, produce, be safe, improve service, and reach goals. Training has successfully been used to reduce errors in such high-risk settings as emergency rooms, aviation, and the military. However, training is also important in more conventional organizations. These organizations understand that training helps them to remain competitive by continually educating their workforce. They understand that investing in their employees yields greater results. However, training is not as intuitive as it may seem. There is a science of training that shows that there is a right way and a wrong way to design, deliver, and implement a training program. The research on training clearly shows two things: (a) training works, and (b) the way training is designed, delivered, and implemented matters. This article aims to explain why training is important and how to use training appropriately. Using the training literature as a guide, we explain what training is, why it is important, and provide recommendations for implementing a training program in an organization. In particular, we argue that training is a systematic process, and we explain what matters before, during, and after training. Steps to take at each of these three time periods are listed and described and are summarized in a checklist for ease of use. We conclude with a discussion of implications for both leaders and policymakers and an exploration of issues that may come up when deciding to implement a training program. Furthermore, we include key questions that executives and policymakers should ask about the design, delivery, or implementation of a training program. Finally, we consider future research that is important in this area, including some still unanswered questions and room for development in this evolving field.

Meta‐analytic techniques were used to examine the effectiveness of Web‐based instruction (WBI) relative to classroom instruction (CI) and to examine moderators of the comparative effectiveness of the 2 delivery media. The overall results indicated WBI was 6% more effective than CI for teaching declarative knowledge, the 2 delivery media were equally effective for teaching procedural knowledge, and trainees were equally satisfied with WBI and CI. However, WBI and CI were equally effective for teaching declarative knowledge when the same instructional methods were used to deliver both WBI and CI, suggesting media effects are spurious and supporting Clark's (1983, 1994) theory. Finally, WBI was 19% more effective than CI for teaching declarative knowledge when Web‐based trainees were provided with control, in long courses, and when trainees practiced the training material and received feedback during training. Study limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Training and development research has a long tradition within applied psychology dating back to the early 1900s. Over the years, not only has interest in the topic grown but there have been dramatic changes in both the science and practice of training and development. In the current article, we examine the evolution of training and development research using articles published in the () as a primary lens to analyze what we have learned and to identify where future research is needed. We begin by reviewing the timeline of training and development research in from 1918 to the present in order to elucidate the critical trends and advances that define each decade. These trends include the emergence of more theory-driven training research, greater consideration of the role of the trainee and training context, examination of learning that occurs outside the classroom, and understanding training's impact across different levels of analysis. We then examine in greater detail the evolution of 4 key research themes: training criteria, trainee characteristics, training design and delivery, and the training context. In each area, we describe how the focus of research has shifted over time and highlight important developments. We conclude by offering several ideas for future training and development research. (PsycINFO Database Record

A recent review of ratee race effects on performance ratings (Landy & Farr, 1980) found conflicting results. For the present research, meta-analytic techniques were used for more substantive conclusions about the existence of ratee race effects and whether the effects were related to rater race or were moderated by situational factors. The five moderators examined included the study setting (laboratory/ field), rater training (offered/not offered), type of rating (behavior/trait), rating purpose (administrative/research), and the composition of the workgroup (percentage of blacks in each study). Seventy-four studies with a total sample of 17,159 ratees were located for white raters, whereas 14 studies with 2,428 ratees included data on black raters. The corrected mean correlations between ratee race and ratings for white and black raters were .183 and -.220, respectively, with 95% confidence intervals that excluded zero for both rater groups. Substantial moderating effects were found for study setting and for the saliency of blacks in the sample. Race effects were more likely in field settings when blacks composed a small percentage of the workforce. The appropriate role of laboratory studies and the implications of the results for guiding future research on racial bias are discussed.A traditional literature review of ratee race effects has been recently completed by Landy and Farr (1980). Many of the studies reviewed showed a significant ratee race effect (deJung &

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Linkages between 2 types of shared mental models (SMMs)--that is, positional-goal interdependencies and cue-strategy associations--and effectiveness in an air traffic control environment were investigated. Two types of SMMs were expected to contribute uniquely, as well as interact, to predict tower safety and efficiency. Using SMM data from 306 air traffic controllers, and corresponding archival efficiency and safety measures for 47 airports, the authors found no significant linear relationships between SMMs and either outcome measure. However, the 2 SMMs interacted with one another to predict both outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of measuring multiple types of SMMs, the examination of complex relationships, and the importance of indexing decisions.