Ionic currents and the network-driven patterns they generate differ in immature and adult neurons: The developing brain is not a "small adult brain." One of the most investigated examples is the developmentally regulated shift of actions of the transmitter GABA that inhibit adult neurons but excite immature ones because of an initially higher intracellular chloride concentration [Cl(-)](i), leading to depolarizing and often excitatory actions of GABA instead of hyperpolarizing and inhibitory actions. The levels of [Cl(-)](i) are also highly labile, being readily altered transiently or persistently by enhanced episodes of activity in relation to synaptic plasticity or a variety of pathological conditions, including seizures and brain insults. Among the plethora of channels, transporters, and other devices involved in controlling [Cl(-)](i), two have emerged as playing a particularly important role: the chloride importer NKCC1 and the chloride exporter KCC2. Here, the authors stress the importance of determining how [Cl(-)](i) is dynamically regulated and how this affects brain operation in health and disease. In a clinical perspective, agents that control [Cl(-)](i) and reinstate inhibitory actions of GABA open novel therapeutic perspectives in many neurological disorders, including infantile epilepsies, autism spectrum disorders, and other developmental disorders.
Myc is an oncogenic transcription factor frequently dysregulated in human cancer. To identify pathways supporting the Myc oncogenic program, we employed a genome-wide RNAi screen for Myc-synthetic-lethal genes and uncovered a role for the SUMO-activating-enzyme (SAE1/2). Loss of SAE1/2 enzymatic activity drives synthetic lethality with Myc. Inactivation of SAE2 leads to mitotic catastrophe and cell death selectively upon Myc hyper-activation. Mechanistically, SAE2 inhibition switches a transcriptional subprogram of Myc from activated to repressed. A subset of these SUMOylation-dependent-Myc-switchers (SMS genes) is required for mitotic spindle function and to support the Myc oncogenic program. SAE2 is required for Myc-dependent tumor growth, and patient survival significantly correlates with SAE1/SAE2 levels in Myc-high tumors. These studies reveal a mitotic vulnerability of Myc-driven cancers, demonstrate that inhibiting sumoylation impairs Myc-dependent tumorigenesis, and suggest inhibiting SUMOylation may have therapeutic benefits for patients with Myc-driven cancer.
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