In addition to cognitive disability, fragile X syndrome (FXS) is associated with behavioral problems that are often functionally limiting. There are few controlled trials to guide treatment; however, available information does suggest that medications can be quite helpful for a number of categories of behavioral disturbance in FXS. Specifically, stimulants appear to be quite useful for management of distractibility, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior; antidepressants help with anxiety, obsessive-compulsive behaviors and mood dysregulation; and antipsychotics can reduce aggression. These medications are supportive and help minimize dysfunctional behaviors and maximize functioning. As more is learned about the neural functions of FMRP, medications in the future will be expected to target specific synaptic mechanisms dysregulated in FXS brain and thus ameliorate the cognitive deficit with resultant behavioral improvements. This article summarizes knowledge about effectiveness and approaches to management of currently available psychopharmacology for behavior in FXS and discusses early leads to future treatments for cognition.
A Phase II, 4-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the Ampakine compound CX516 as a potential treatment for the underlying disorder in fragile X syndrome (FXS). After baseline screening, subjects with FXS (n = 49) underwent a 1-week placebo lead-in and then were randomized to study drug or placebo for a 4-week period. Cognitive and behavioral outcome measures were administered prior to treatment, at the end of treatment, and 2 weeks posttreatment. There were minimal side effects, no significant changes in safety parameters, and no serious adverse events. There was a 12.5% frequency of allergic rash in the CX516 group and 1 subject developed a substantial rash. There was also no significant improvement in memory, the primary outcome measure, or in secondary measures of language, attention/executive function, behavior, and overall functioning in CX516-treated subjects compared to placebo. This study did demonstrate that many outcome measures were reproducible in this test-retest setting for the FXS population, yet some were too difficult or variable. Adult subjects with FXS were able to complete an intensive clinical trial, and some valid outcome measures were identified for future FXS trial design. Problems with potency of CX516 in other studies have suggested dosing may have been inadequate for therapeutic effect and thus it remains unclear whether modulation of AMPA-mediated neurotransmission is a viable therapeutic strategy for the treatment of FXS.
Fragile X tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) is a recently described condition consisting of tremor, ataxia, parkinsonism, and executive dysfunction, presenting predominantly in male carriers of a fragile X mental retardation 1 premutation. In this report, we present premutation carrier sisters in whom severity of clinical signs correlated with a molecular pattern of X-inactivation favoring higher expression of the premutation allele. In these women with a common genetic background, we suggest that symptom severity may be dictated by X-inactivation, and thus a higher percentage of cells producing the premutation-containing mRNA result in increased toxicity and disease. Neurol 2005;57:144 -147 Fragile X syndrome (FXS) results from a trinucleotide (CGG) repeat expansion mutation in the promoter region of the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. Ann1 The full mutation (Ͼ200 CGG repeats) is associated with methylation and transcriptional silencing of FMR1, absence of FMR1 protein (FMRP), 2,3 and the clinical syndrome of mental retardation. The premutation (approximately 55-200 repeats) predisposes an individual to have children or grandchildren with FXS but is not associated with hypermethylation of FMR1, transcriptional silencing, absence of FMRP, or typical FXS.3,4 Individuals with the premutation may display some of the physical features of FXS, 5 and, although overall cognitive disability is not evident, 6,7 behavioral issues seen in FXS, such as anxiety and social phobia, are more prevalent in premutation carriers than in control groups. 8,9 A subgroup of older male premutation carriers develop a progressive neurological condition, termed fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) and characterized predominantly by multidimensional tremor, gait and limb ataxia, and parkinsonian symptoms. 10 -13 More variable features include neuropathy, autonomic dysfunction, and psychiatric and executive function deficits, with progressive cognitive deterioration in some individuals. Magnetic resonance imaging findings in affected individuals include diffuse brain atrophy with evidence of white matter disease and characteristic high-signal lesions in the middle cerebellar peduncle.14 Associated neuropathological findings include eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions in neurons and glia and spongiform change in the white matter with mild axonal and myelin loss.15 Pathological changes are thought to result from cellular toxicity related to elevated levels of CGG repeat-containing FMR1 mRNA, which have been observed in premutation carriers.10 -15 FXTAS is not seen in individuals with FXS and a full mutation because the FMR1 mRNA is generally reduced or absent in these individuals because of transcriptional silencing.FXTAS initially was described only in male premutation carriers, and two studies have shown no significant differences in neurological function between groups of 50ϩ-year-old premutation carrier female subjects and normal female controls.12,14 A recent report described five women with FXTAS, although th...
Background The International Serial Transverse Enteroplasty (STEP) Data Registry is a voluntary online database created in 2004 to collect information on patients undergoing the STEP procedure. The aim of this study was to identify preoperative factors significantly associated with 1) transplantation or death, or 2) attainment of enteral autonomy following STEP. Study Design Data were collected from September 2004 to January 2010. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were applied to determine predictors of transplantation/death or enteral autonomy post-STEP. Time to reach full enteral nutrition was estimated using a Kaplan-Meier curve. Results Fourteen of the 111 patients in the Registry were excluded due to inadequate follow-up. Of the remaining 97 patients, 11 patients died, and 5 progressed to intestinal transplantation. On multivariate analysis, higher direct bilirubin and shorter pre-STEP bowel length were independently predictive of progression to transplantation or death (p = .05 and p < .001, respectively). Of the 78 patients who were ≥7 days of age and required parenteral nutrition (PN) at the time of STEP, 37 (47%) achieved enteral autonomy after the first STEP. Longer pre-STEP bowel length was also independently associated with enteral autonomy (p = .002). The median time to reach enteral autonomy based on Kaplan-Meier analysis was 21 months (95% CI: 12-30). Conclusions Overall mortality post-STEP was 11%. Pre-STEP risk factors for progressing to transplantation or death were higher direct bilirubin and shorter bowel length. Among patients who underwent STEP for short bowel syndrome, 47% attained full enteral nutrition post-STEP. Patients with longer pre-STEP bowel length were significantly more likely to achieve enteral autonomy.
Background Infants have the highest waitlist mortality of all liver transplant candidates. Deceased-donor split liver transplantation, a technique that provides both an adult and pediatric graft, may be the best way to decrease this disproportionate mortality. Yet concern for an increased risk to adult split recipients has discouraged its widespread adoption. We aimed to determine the current risk of graft failure in adult recipients following split liver transplantation. Study Design United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) data from 62,190 first-time adult recipients of deceased-donor liver transplants (1995–2010) were analyzed (889 split grafts). Bivariate risk factors (p<0.2) were included in cox proportional hazards models of the effect of transplant type on graft failure. Results Split liver recipients had an over-all hazard-ratio (HR) of graft failure of 1.26 (p<.001) compared to whole liver recipients. The split liver HR was 1.45 (p<.001) in the pre-MELD era (1995–2002), and 1.10 (p=.28) in the MELD era (2002–2010). Interaction analyses suggested an increased risk of split graft failure in Status 1 recipients and those given an exception for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Excluding higher-risk recipients, split and whole grafts had similar outcomes (HR .94, p=.59). Conclusions The risk of graft failure is now similar between split and whole liver recipients in the vast majority of cases – demonstrating that the expansion of split liver allocation may be possible without increasing the overall risk of long-term graft failure in adult recipients. Further prospective analysis should examine if selection bias may account for the possible increase in risk for recipients with HCC or designated Status 1.
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