An eloquent example of experience-induced neuroplasticity involves the enduring effects of daily "handling" of rat pups on the expression of genes regulating hormonal and behavioral responses to stress. Handling-evoked augmentation of maternal care of pups induces long-lasting reduction of hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) expression and upregulates hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor levels. These changes promote a lifelong attenuation of hormonal stress responses. We have found previously that handlingevoked downregulation of CRH expression occurs already by postnatal day 9, implicating it as an early step in this experience-induced neuroplasticity. Here, we investigated the neuronal pathways and cellular mechanisms involved. CRH mRNA expression in hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) diminished after daily handling but not after handling once only, indicating that "recurrent" handling was required for this effect. Return of handled pups to their cage provoked a burst of nurturing behavior in dams that, in turn, induced transient, coordinate Fos expression in selected regions of the pups' brains. These included central nucleus of the amygdala (ACe) and bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BnST), regions that are afferent to PVN and influence CRH expression there. Whereas handling once sufficed to evoke Fos expression within ACe and BnST, expression in thalamic paraventricular nucleus, a region involved in storing and processing stress-related experience, required recurrent handling. Fos induction in all three regions elicited reduced transcription factor phosphorylation, followed by attenuated activation of CRH gene transcription within the PVN. These studies provide a neurobiological foundation for the profound neuroplasticity of stress-related genes evoked by early-life experience.

Whereas genetic factors contribute crucially to brain function, early-life events, including stress, exert long-lasting influence on neuronal function. Here, we focus on the hippocampus as the target of these early-life events because of its crucial role in learning and memory. Using a novel immaturerodent model, we describe the deleterious consequences of chronic early-life 'psychological' stress on hippocampus-dependent cognitive tasks. We review the cellular mechanisms involved and discuss the roles of stress-mediating molecules, including corticotropin releasing hormone, in the process by which stress impacts the structure and function of hippocampal neurons. KeywordsNeonatal; Rat; Human; Stress; Memory; Hippocampus; Corticotropin releasing hormone; CRF; Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis; Neuroplasticity Early-life events interact with genetic factors to influence hippocampal function long-termBrain function and dysfunction throughout life are determined by the interaction of genetic factors with 'acquired' environmental events, signals and stimuli [100]. Events that occur early in life are capable of exerting effects that persist throughout adulthood. Here, we focus on the hippocampus as the target of these early-life events because of its crucial role in learning, memory storage and retrieval, and general cognitive function [105,41,65]. Indeed, early-life events, via complex interactions with genetic factors [106,120], have been suspected to be a major determinant of smaller hippocampal volume and long-term cognitive dysfunction in preterm infants [111,17] and may play a role in certain affective and dementing disorders in the adult and aging human [100,26,120]. This review focuses on the mechanisms by which certain early-life events influence populations of hippocampal neurons acutely, and impact the function and integrity of the hippocampus long-term. Studying early-life stress may be used to probe the molecular mechanisms involved in experience-evoked hippocampal neuroplasticityStress may provide a salient example of early-life experience that might exert long-lasting influence on the brain, because (1) over 50% of the world's children are exposed to stress [139] and (2) evidence from both human and animal studies suggests that early-life stress has profound effects on cognitive function and emotional health.Stress has been shown to influence the hippocampus in a number of important ways. Whereas acute mild stress rapidly enhances synaptic efficacy and learning and memory processes [131,45,91,123], chronic or severe activation of the stress response early in life has been shown to be potentially injurious in both humans [6,120,147] and experimental animals [120,31]. For example, severe childhood psychological stress (neglect and abuse) correlates with a higher incidence of learning disabilities later in life, including those learning and memory functions requiring an intact hippocampus [121,50]. Further, MRI studies have suggested that adults subjected to abuse (a measure of chronic stress) ...

Early-life experience, including maternal care, influences hippocampus-dependent learning and memory throughout life. Handling of pups during postnatal d 2-9 (P2-9) stimulates maternal care and leads to improved memory function and stress-coping. The underlying molecular mechanisms may involve early (by P9) and enduring reduction of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) expression and subsequent (by P45) increase in hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression. However, whether hypothalamic CRF levels influence changes in hippocampal GR expression (and memory function), via reduced CRF receptor activation and consequent lower plasma glucocorticoid levels, is unclear. In this study we administered selective antagonist for the type 1 CRF receptor, NBI 30775, to nonhandled rats post hoc from P10-17 and examined hippocampus-dependent learning and memory later (on P50-70), using two independent paradigms, compared with naive and vehicle-treated nonhandled, and naive and antagonist-treated handled rats. Hippocampal GR and hypothalamic CRF mRNA levels and stress-induced plasma corticosterone levels were also examined. Transient, partial selective blockade of CRF1 in nonhandled rats improved memory functions on both the Morris watermaze and object recognition tests to levels significantly better than in naive and vehicle-treated controls and were indistinguishable from those in handled (naive, vehicle-treated, and antagonist-treated) rats. GR mRNA expression was increased in hippocampal CA1 and the dentate gyrus of CRF1-antagonist treated nonhandled rats to levels commensurate with those in handled cohorts. Thus, the extent of CRF1 activation, probably involving changes in hypothalamic CRF levels and release, contributes to the changes in hippocampal GR expression and learning and memory functions.

The effects of stress, including their putative contribution to pathological psychiatric conditions, are crucially governed by the age at which the stress takes place. However, the cellular and molecular foundations for the impact of stress on neuronal function, and their change with age, are unknown. For example, it is not known whether 'psychological' stress signals are perceived by similar neuronal populations at different ages, and whether they activate similar or age-specific signaling pathways that might then mediate the spectrum of stress-evoked neuronal changes. We employed restraint and restraint/noise stress to address these issues in juvenile (postnatal day 18, [P18]) and adult rats, and used phosphorylation of the transcription factor CREB (pCREB) and induction of c-fos as markers of hippocampal neuronal responses. Stress-activated neuronal populations were identified both anatomically and biochemically, and selective blockers of the stress-activated hippocampal peptide, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) were used to probe the role of this molecule in stressinduced hippocampal cell activation. Stress evoked strikingly different neuronal response patterns in immature vs adult hippocampus. Expression of pCREB appeared within minutes in hippocampal CA3 pyramidal cells of P18 rats, followed by delayed induction of Fos protein in the same cell population. In contrast, basal pCREB levels were high in adult hippocampus and were not altered at 10-120 min by stress. Whereas Fos induction was elicited by stress in the adult, it was essentially confined to area CA1, with little induction in CA3. At both age groups, central pretreatment with either a nonselective blocker of CRH receptors or the CRF 1 -selective antagonist, NBI 30775, abolished stress-evoked neuronal activation. In conclusion, hippocampal neuronal responses to psychological stress are generally more rapid and robust in juvenile rats, compared to fully mature adults, and at both ages, CRH plays a key role in this process. Enhanced hippocampal response to stress during development, and particularly the activation of the transcription factor CREB, may contribute to the enduring effects of stress during this period on hippocampal function.

SUMMARY

No abstract

Dogs develop cognitive decline and a progressive accumulation of oxidative damage. In a previous longitudinal study, we demonstrated that aged dogs treated with either an antioxidant diet or with behavioral enrichment show cognitive improvement. The antioxidant diet included cellular antioxidants (Vitamins E, C, fruits and vegetables) and mitochondrial co-factors (lipoic acid and carnitine). Behavioral enrichment consisted of physical exercise, social enrichment and cognitive training. We hypothesized that the antioxidant treatment improved neuronal function through increased mitochondrial function. Thus, we measured reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and bioenergetics in mitochondria isolated from young, aged and treated aged animals. Aged canine brain mitochondria show significant increases in ROS production and a reduction in NADH-linked respiration. Mitochondrial function (ROS and NADH-linked respiration) was improved selectively in aged dogs treated with an antioxidant diet. In contrast behavioral enrichment had no effect on any mitochondrial parameters. These results suggest that an antioxidant diet improves cognition by maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis, which may be an independent molecular pathway not engaged by behavioral enrichment.

Early-life experience including maternal care profoundly influences hormonal stress responses during adulthood. Daily handling on postnatal day (P) 2-9, eliciting augmented maternal care upon returning pups to their cage, permanently modifies the expression of the stress neuromodulators corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR). We have previously demonstrated reduced hypothalamic CRF expression already at the end of the handling period, followed by enhanced hippocampal GR mRNA levels (by P45). However, the initial site(s) and time of onset of these enduring changes have remained unclear. Therefore, we used semiquantitative in situ hybridization to delineate the spatiotemporal evolution of CRF and GR expression throughout stress-regulatory brain regions in handled (compared with undisturbed) pups. Enhanced CRF mRNA expression was apparent in the amygdaloid central nucleus (ACe) of handled pups already by P6. By P9, the augmented CRF mRNA levels persisted in ACe, accompanied by increased peptide expression in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and reduced expression in the paraventricular nucleus. The earliest change in GR consisted of reduced expression in the ACe of handled pups on P9, a time point when hippocampal GR expression was not yet affected. Thus, altered gene expression in ACe, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis as well as paraventricular nucleus may contribute to the molecular cascade by which handling (and increased maternal care) influences the stress response long term.