The possibility of digital interactivity requires us to reenvision the map reader as the map user, and to address the perceptual, cognitive, cultural, and practical considerations that influence the user's experience with interactive maps and visualizations. In this article, we present an agenda for empirical research on this user and the interactive designs he or she employs. The research agenda is a result of a multi-stage discussion among international scholars facilitated by the International Cartographic Association that included an early round of position papers and two subsequent workshops to narrow into pressing themes and important research opportunities. The focus of our discussion is epistemological and reflects the wide interdisciplinary influences on user studies in cartography. The opportunities are presented as imperatives that cross basic research and user-centered design studies, and identify practical impediments to empirical research, emerging interdisciplinary recommendations to improve user studies, and key research needs specific to the study of interactive maps and visualizations.

The experiments described in this paper combine response time measurements and eye movement data to gain insight in the users' cognitive processes while working with dynamic and interactive maps. Experts and novices participated in a user study with a 'between user' design. Twenty screen maps were presented in a random order to each participant, on which he had to execute a visual search. The combined information of the button actions and eye tracker reveal that both user groups showed a similar pattern in the time intervals needed to locate the subsequent names. From this pattern, information about the users' cognitive load could be derived: use of working memory, learning effect, etc. Moreover, the response times also showed that the experts were significantly faster in finding the names in the map image. This is further explained by the eye movement metrics: experts had significantly shorter fixations and more fixations per second meaning that they could interpret a larger part of the map in the same amount of time. As a consequence, they could locate objects in the map image more efficiently and thus faster.

Published as: Ooms, K., De Maeyer, P., Fack, V., 2014, Study of the attentive behavior of novice and expert map users using eye tracking. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 41 (1), p. 37-54 (doi:10.1080Science, 41 (1), p. 37-54 (doi:10. /15230406.2013.Studying the attentive behavior of novice and expert map users using eye tracking AbstractThe aim of this paper is to gain a better understanding of the way map users read and interpret the visual stimuli presented to them and how this can be influenced. In particular the difference between expert and novice map users is considered. In a user study, with a between user design, the participants had to study four different screen maps, which had also been manipulated for introducing deviations. The eye movements of expert and novice participants, 24 in total, were studied during these trials. Based on a grid of Areas of Interest, these eye movement recordings were analyzed both visually and statistically. These two dimensional visual analyses are essential for studying the spatial dimension of maps to locate problems in its design. The proposed analyses include the visualization of eye movement metrics (fixation count and duration) in a 2D and 3D grid, including a statistical comparison of these grid cells. The resultsshow that the users' eye movements clearly reflect the main structuring elements on the map. The interpretation process of both user groups is influenced by deviating color use on the map as their attention is drawn to it. Furthermore, both user groups encounter difficulties when trying to interpret and store familiar map objects, which are not exactly the same as the ones they stored previously (caused by a mirror operation on the objects). These influences are found to be more pronounced with novices than with experts. Insights in how different types of map users read and interpret the map content are essential in this fast evolving era of digital cartographic products.

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We analyze if the visual exploration of landscape photographs is influenced by the urbanization level of the landscape and whether this is correlated with visual landscape complexity. We determine if differences in viewing behavior are related to differences in complexity, expressed by the photograph's spectral entropy. An eye-tracking experiment is conducted to measure visual behavior while observing the photographs. A more extensive and dispersed exploration is found in more urbanized landscapes. The fixation pattern is more restricted and clustered in weakly urbanized landscapes. When buildings are lacking, this trend cannot be extrapolated since these landscapes seem to elicit an unexpectedly extensive exploration. The urbanization level is positively correlated with the visual complexity, indicating its potential influence on the viewing behavior

This article compares the accuracy and precision of the low-cost Eye Tribe tracker and a well-established comparable eye tracker: SMI RED 250. Participants were instructed to fixate on predefined point locations on a screen. The accuracy is measured by the distance between the recorded fixation locations and the actual location. Precision is represented by the standard deviation of these measurements. Furthermore, the temporal precision of both eye tracking devices (sampling rate) is evaluated as well. The obtained results illustrate that a correct set-up and selection of software to record and process the data are of utmost importance to obtain acceptable results with the low-cost device. Nevertheless, with careful selections in each of these steps, the quality (accuracy and precision) of the recorded data can be considered comparable.

Due to recent technological progress, maps have become more popular than ever before. This is especially true for young people, who interact with these technologies on a daily basis. Therefore, it is essential that these potential map users possess sufficient knowledge and skills to process the content of cartographic products. A user study was conducted during which pupils (aged 11-18 years) and geography students (>18 years) had to solve a number of cartography questions using topographic maps. The data were analysed statistically, taking into account a number of potentially influencing factors (user characteristics) on the participants' results: age, gender, youth club membership, knowledge about the area, among others. The results show a rising trend in the pupils' scores with increasing age, which can be explained by education in cartography at school. Geography students perform much better, but no influence of any other user characteristics was detected. For pupils, knowledge about the area and gender might be considered as influencing factors. However, the detected influence of gender depends on the scoring system.

This paper aims at extending current research regarding map users' cognitive processes while working with screen maps. The described experiment investigates how (expert and novice) map users retrieve information from memory that was previously gathered from screen maps. A user study was conducted in which participants had to draw a map from memory. During this task, they were instructed to say out loud every thought that came into mind. Both user groups addressed the same general cognitive structures and processes to solve the task at hand. However, the experts' background knowledge facilitated the retrieval process and allowed them to derive extra information through deductive reasoning. The novices used more descriptive terms instead of naming the objects and could remember less, and less detailed map elements.