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This paper presents the general proof for a new design principle: the principle of equipartition of forces. The principle has been derived for coupled transports of heat, mass, and charge using irreversible thermodynamics combined with Cauchy-Lagrange optimization procedures. The principle says that the best trade-off between energy dissipation and transfer area is achieved when the thermodynamic driving forces are uniformly distributed over the transfer area. A new strategy for the design of energy optimal transfer processes follows. Practical problems in applications of the principle are discussed.

Many operating parameters, individually or together, may influence the performance of anaerobic digestion towards biogas or digestate yield and quality maximization. The most preferred method of optimizing an anaerobic digestion plant often relies on how carefully the crucial parameters, such as pH, temperature, organic loading rate, hydraulic retention time, and pressure, are chosen. There is a large amount of literature available on optimization of anaerobic digestion; however, given the continued development and implementation of innovative technologies, together with the introduction of increasingly complex systems, it is necessary to update present knowledge on process parameters and their role on operational ranges and flexibilities in real-life anaerobic digestion system. Accordingly, the present review discusses the importance of the selection of operational parameters in existing technologies and their impact on biogas yield. Notably, the four broad areas of feedstock utilization (substrate, inoculum, codigestion and pretreatment), process condition (pH, temperature, pressure, and reactor design), reactor control (HRT and OLR) and inhibition (Ammonia and VFAs) are covered in this review. In addition, particular emphasis is placed on the most recent innovations that have been or may be implemented in current or future biogas plants.

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This paper presents an explanation of why methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) production by reactive distillation may yield multiple solutions. Widely different composition profiles and conversions may, as already reported by Krishna and others, result with identical column specifications, depending on the initial estimates provided. A hypothesis yielding a qualitative understanding of this phenomenon has been developed. The inert n-butene plays a key role in the proposed explanation: As the reaction mixture is diluted with n-butene, the activity coefficient of methanol increases substantially and the temperature decreases. This dilution has a profound effect on the equilibrium conversion, enabling MTBE to escape from the reactive zone without decomposition. When methanol is fed below or in the lower part of the reactive zone of the column, the "lifting capacity" of the minimum boiling point MTBE-methanol azeotrope will also be important.