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Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach in which students in small groups engage in an authentic, ill-structured problem, and must (1) define, generate and pursue learning issues to understand the problem, (2) develop a possible solution, (3) provide evidence to support their solution, and (4) present their solution and the evidence that supports it (Barrows, How to design a problem-based curriculum for the preclinical years. Springer Publishing, New York, 1985). However, research has shown that novice problem-solvers and learners without deep content knowledge have difficulty developing strong evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313-350, 1998a; Reiser, J Lear Sci 13(3): 2004). In this paper, we discuss the components of (e.g., claims and evidence) and processes of making (e.g., define problem and make claim) evidencebased arguments. Furthermore, we review various scaffolding models designed to help students perform various tasks associated with creating evidence-based arguments (e.g., link claims to evidence) and present guidelines for the development of computer-based scaffolds to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments.Keywords Middle school Á Scaffold design guidelines Á Problem-based learning Á Scaffolding Á Evidence-based arguments Recently, science educators have called for the use of inquiry-based instructional frameworks to help middle school students learn the process of science (i.e., the inquiry process), and move beyond instruction focused on declarative knowledge (Keys and Bryan 2001;Krajcik et al. 1998b;Sandoval and Reiser 2004). A major reason for this call is a perceived need for middle school students to learn problem-solving (Keys and Bryan 2001), scientific

Students engaged in problem-based learning (PBL) units solve ill-structured problems in small groups, and then present arguments in support of their solution. However, middle school students often struggle developing evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313-350, 1998). Using a mixed method design, the researchers examined the use of computer-based argumentation scaffolds, called the Connection Log, to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments. Specifically we investigated (a) the impact of computer-based argumentation scaffolds on middle school students' construction of evidence-based arguments during a PBL unit, and (b) scaffold use among members of two small groups purposefully chosen for case studies. Data sources included a test of argument evaluation ability, persuasive presentation rating scores, informal observations, videotaped class sessions, and retrospective interviews. Findings included a significant simple main effect on argument evaluation ability among lower-achieving students, and use of the scaffolds by the small groups to communicate and keep organized.

The Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) initiative has funded various efforts to improve and enhance the technology preparation of preservice teachers. At Arizona State University, these efforts have focused on providing preservice teachers with opportunities to develop, implement, and evaluate their own instructional activities that utilize technology effectively and appropriately in authentic situations, to give them the myriad of tools necessary to integrate technology into teaching and learning activities. This paper focuses on the integration of these efforts into the field-based elementary education program, and discusses our formative evaluation of the field-based technology integration model, through the following questions: What are the preliminary successes of the model with regard to student perceptions, attitudes, and integration of technology into instructional activities? and What components of the model require additions or modifications?The Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) initiative has funded various efforts to improve and enhance the technology preparation of preservice teachers. Many of these efforts have focused on supporting education faculty, others have concentrated primarily on preservice teachers, and still others have developed repositories of resources for dissemination. However, these initiatives have not occurred in isolation. After publication of the Office of Technology Assessment (1995) national report, Teachers and Technology: Making the Connection, many colleges and universities began examining more effective means for technology preparation. This report examined schools' technological capabilities, barriers to student learning via technology, and teachers' current preparedness for technology integration. The report concluded that, "Despite technologies available in schools, a substantial number of teachers report little or no use of computers for instruction" (p. 1). The report also stated that teachers still struggle with integrating technology into the curriculum, and attributed much of this to inadequate training: "Most teachers have not had adequate training to prepare them to use technology effectively in teaching . . . On average, districts devote no more than 15 per- (Schrum, 1999;Strudler & Wetzel, 1999;Topp, Mortensen, & Grandgenett, 1995). This lack of support leads teachers to use technology for low-level, supplemental tasks such as drill and practice activities, word processing, educational games, and computer-based tutorials (Strudler & Wetzel, 1999;Willis, Thompson, & Sadera, 1999). As Abdal-Haqq (1995) stated, " [F]ew teachers routinely use computer-based technologies for instructional purposes" (p. 1).Inadequate instruction and support for technology integration is not an issue only with K-12 teachers; research has demonstrated that technology preparation provided by teacher training institutions to preservice teachers with regard to technology has similar problems. In a review of the literature related to technology and t...

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