In the context of action research in community forests, stakeholders' values for biodiversity can be elicited, communicated and understood with the help of a multidimensional conceptual framework. This incorporates levels of diversity (genes, species, habitats and processes), types of values (direct use, indirect use, option and existence) and stakeholders. This paper explores the effect of using this framework on forest monitoring, learning and communication, and wider implications for conservation, in Baglung District (Nepal). Monitoring was initially an unfamiliar concept to villagers, but the process clarified its purpose, whilst helping to elicit and exchange values and knowledge amongst stakeholders. This precipitated proposals for silvicultural experimentation and social inquiry into the diversity of users' needs. The framework allowed the translation of local value statements into categories recognized by other actors. It aided external stakeholders in understanding the factors contributing to values held by community forest users. Villagers' appreciation of ‘quality’ forest did not necessarily equate to the most ‘biodiverse’ forest, but rather the greenest and densest and that stocked with useful species. Elite domination, tenure and access to markets affected values assigned and behaviour in forest management. Elicitation of these values provoked questioning of forest management decisions and benefit sharing among community forest users. This, in turn, stimulated more democratic forest management and more inclusive, wide-ranging biodiversity values. Participatory monitoring is more conceptually challenging than is usually recognized, and the links between equity and conservation merit further attention in different cultural contexts.

Background Naturally occurring aflatoxins may contribute to poor growth and nutritional statuses in children. Objectives We analyzed the relationship between contemporary and lagged aflatoxin exposure and 1) length-for-age z-score (LAZ); and 2) length, knee-heel length, stunting, weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), and weight-for-length z-score (WLZ). Methods We conducted a longitudinal birth cohort study involving 1675 mother-infant dyads in rural Nepal. Participants were repeatedly visited from pregnancy to 2 years of age (2015–2019). One blood sample was collected during pregnancy and 4 samples were collected from the children at 3, 6, 12, and 18–22 months of age to measure concentrations of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-lysine adduct. Multivariate linear fixed-effects and logistic models with generalized estimating equations were used to identify associations between child growth and aflatoxin exposure. Results AFB1-lysine adducts were detected in the majority of children (at 3 months, 80.5%; at 6 months, 75.3%; at 12 months, 81.1%; and at 18–22 months, 85.1%) and in 94.3% of pregnant women. Changes in contemporary ln child AFB1-lysine adduct concentrations were significantly associated with changes in LAZ (β, −0.05; 95% CI, −0.09 to −0.02; P = 0.003), length (β, −0.19; 95% CI, −0.29 to −0.10; P < 0.001), knee-heel length (β, −0.09; 95% CI, −0.13 to −0.05; P < 0.001), and WAZ (β, −0.04; 95% CI, −0.07 to −0.005; P = 0.022). Serum aflatoxin concentrations were associated with stunting (OR, 1.18; 95% CI, 1.05–1.32; P = 0.005). Similar results were found in the models using changes in contemporary ln AFB1 adjusted for changes in child weight, with significant associations with changes in WLZ (β, −0.07; 95% CI, −0.10 to −0.03; P < 0.001). Changes in time-lagged ln AFB1 (unadjusted and adjusted for changes in child weight) were associated with changes in length and knee-heel length. Conclusions Our results add to the growing body of evidence confirming chronic aflatoxin exposure and suggest that exposure is significantly correlated with various negative growth outcomes, which may vary by child weight status. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03312049.

Background Exposure to aflatoxin has garnered increased attention as a possible contributor to adverse birth outcomes. Objective The objective of this study was to investigate the relation of maternal aflatoxin exposure with adverse birth outcomes such as birth weight, birth length, anthropometric z scores, low birth weight (LBW), small-for-gestational-age (SGA), stunting, and preterm birth (PTB). Methods This study used maternal and newborn data from the AflaCohort Study, an ongoing birth cohort study in Banke, Nepal (n = 1621). Data on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-lysine adducts in maternal serum were collected once during pregnancy (at mean ± SD: 136 ± 43 d of gestation). Maternal serum AFB1-lysine adduct concentration was measured via HPLC. Linear and logistic regression analyses were used to determine if maternal aflatoxin exposure was associated with 1) birth weight and length (primary outcomes) and 2) anthropometric z scores, LBW (weight <2.5 kg), SGA (weight <10th percentile for gestational age and sex), stunting at birth (length-for-age z score less than −2), or PTB (born <37 weeks of gestation) (secondary outcomes). Results The geometric mean of maternal serum AFB1-lysine adduct concentration was 1.37 pg/mg albumin (95% CI: 1.30, 1.44 pg/mg albumin). Twenty percent of infants were of LBW and 32% were SGA. Sixteen percent of infants were stunted at birth. In addition, 13% of infants were born preterm. In logistic multivariate regression models, mean maternal serum AFB1-lysine adduct concentrations were significantly associated with SGA (OR: 1.13; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.27; P < 0.05). Conclusions Findings from this study suggest a small but significant association between serum AFB1-lysine adduct concentrations in pregnant women and SGA. Maternal aflatoxin exposure was not associated with other birth outcomes. These results highlight the need for future research on a threshold level of aflatoxin exposure needed to produce detectable adverse birth outcomes. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03312049.

Background Aflatoxins are found in diverse foods widely consumed worldwide. This study investigated the association between aflatoxin exposure and (a) consumption of specific foods, (b) dietary diversity (DD), and (c) seasonality. Methods Women enrolled in the AflaCohort Study in Banke, Nepal (n = 1648) were asked how often they ate certain food items in the past 7 days and 24 h. Serum aflatoxin B 1-lysine (AFB 1-lys) adduct levels, measured during pregnancy, were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. Multivariable ordinary least squares and quantile regression models were used to examine incremental increases in AFB 1-lys adduct levels per frequency of food consumption and the relationship between DD, seasonality, and increases in AFB 1-lys adduct. Results Roughly 94% of women were exposed to aflatoxin (geometric mean 1.37 pg/mg). Women in the 30th, 50th, and 70th quantiles of aflatoxin exposure who reported one more occasion of maize consumption in the past week showed increases in AFB 1-lys adduct levels: 0.094, 0.112, and 0.109 pg/mg (p < 0.05, all). Women in the 30th, 50th, 70th, and 90th quantiles of exposure who reported one more occasion of groundnut consumption in the past week also showed increases in AFB 1-lys adduct levels: 0.058 (p < 0.001), 0.085 (p < 0.01), 0.133 (p < 0.001), and 0.133 (p < 0.001) pg/mg. Winter month recruitment was positively associated with AFB 1-lys adduct levels at all quantiles of aflatoxin exposure (range: 0.313-1.101 pg/mg, p < 0.001). DD was not predictive of aflatoxin exposure. Conclusions Our findings justify integrated approaches to aflatoxin reduction, including regulatory, agricultural, and food safety interventions across the value chain and at the household level.

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