The low productivity and escalating costs of drug development have been well documented over the past several years. Less than 10% of new compounds that enter clinical trials ultimately make it to the market, and many more fail in the preclinical stages of development. These challenges in the "critical path" of drug development are discussed in a 2004 publication by the US Food and Drug Administration. The document emphasizes new tools and various opportunities to improve drug development. One of the opportunities recommended is the application of "model-based drug development (MBDD)." This paper discusses what constitutes the key elements of MBDD and how these elements should fit together to inform drug development strategy and decision-making.
Although without clear scientific rationale, body size-based dosing is often used for administering monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). This simulation study compared the performance of body size-based and fixed dosing in reducing pharmacokinetic (PK) and/or pharmacodynamic (PD) variability in adults for 12 mAbs with published population PK and/or PD models. At the population level, 95th percentile intervals of concentration-time profiles, distribution, and variability of exposure for 1000 subjects after both dosing approaches were examined. At the individual level, the difference between the exposures of patients with extreme body sizes from the typical exposure following both approaches was compared. The results show that the 2 dosing approaches perform similarly across the mAbs investigated with fixed dosing being better for some mAbs and body size-based dosing being better for the others. Based on this finding, we recommend using fixed dosing in first-in-human (FIH) adult studies because it offers other advantages. When sufficient data become available, a full assessment of body size effect on PK/PD should be conducted to determine the optimal dosing approach for phase 3 trials. Other factors that may affect the selection of dosing approach were also discussed. Dosing approach for mAbs in the pediatric population is out of the scope of this study.
Tremelimumab, a fully human monoclonal antibody specific for human cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4, has been studied in clinical trials. We have reported the results of population pharmacokinetics for tremelimumab in 654 metastatic melanoma patients. Population estimates (inter-individual variability [IIV]) for pharmacokinetic parameters in a final model were clearance (CL), 0.26 L/day (31.8%) and central volume of distribution, 3.97 L (20.4%). CL was faster in males, patients with higher values of creatinine clearance and endogenous immunoglobulin, and patients with relatively poor baseline prognostic factors. No dose adjustment was needed based on the magnitude of the change of CL (<30%). The association of CL and overall survival (OS) was investigated. In a Phase 3 trial evaluating tremelimumab as first-line-treatment, median OS for the 147 patients in the fast-CL group (≥ median CL value) was 9.6 months versus 15.8 months for the 146 patients in the slow-CL group (
Therapeutic biologics are often administered based on body size. A previous study has found that fixed dosing performs similarly to body size-based dosing in reducing intersubject variability in drug exposure across the mAbs studied. This study extended this evaluation to other therapeutic proteins and peptides. Eighteen therapeutic proteins and peptides with published population pharmacokinetic (PK) and/or pharmacodynamic (PD) models were selected for dosing approach evaluation. The relationships between body size and drug exposure (and PD end point when available) were evaluated, and simulation studies were conducted to compare the performance of the 2 dosing approaches. The results showed that fixed dosing performed better for 12 of 18 selected biologics in terms of reducing intersubject variability in exposure at both population and individual levels, whereas body size-based dosing performed better for the other 6 molecules. This result is consistent with the findings for mAbs. Therefore, fixed dosing is recommended for first-in-human studies of proteins and peptides along with mAbs. The final dosing approach for phase 3 studies should be determined based on a full assessment of body size effect on PK/PD when data are available and the therapeutic window of the drug.
Guidance from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency recommends using Child-Pugh classification for pharmacokinetic evaluation in noncancer subjects with hepatic impairment (HI). Therefore, dosing recommendations for oncology compounds for patients with HI are commonly based on Child-Pugh classification. In oncology clinical practice, National Cancer Institute classification (NCIc), is commonly used for evaluating hepatic function and dosing decisions for oncology patients. This work evaluated the discordance between the 2 systems and the impact on dosing recommendations. The classification system in HI studies was reviewed for FDA-approved oncology compounds. Discordance between Child-Pugh and NCIc was evaluated for sunitinib, dacomitinib, palbociclib, bosutinib, and axitinib. Pharmacokinetic (PK) analyses were conducted based on Child-Pugh classification and NCIc. Review of 117 approved oncology compounds showed prevalent use of Child-Pugh classification for dedicated HI studies in noncancer subjects. NCIc is commonly used in cancer patient studies. NCIc tended to classify subjects as less impaired versus Child-Pugh (64.9%, 73.7%, and 61.5% of subjects with mild, moderate, and severe HI, respectively, via Child-Pugh were classified as at least 1 category less impaired via NCIc). PK analyses by NCIc were consistent with Child-Pugh for sunitinib, dacomitinib, and palbociclib. For bosutinib, NCIc showed less impact of HI than Child-Pugh; an opposite trend was observed for axitinib. The impact of this considerable discordance between the 2 systems on dosing decisions bears consideration. When Child-Pugh is used for HI study enrollment, exploratory PK analyses based on NCIc should be conducted. Prescribers should attempt to use the same classification system in the product label for dosing decisions.
Crizotinib at a 250-mg twice-daily starting dose appears to be appropriate for all patients irrespective of age, sex, race, body weight, mild or moderate renal impairment, or hepatic function (in the range evaluated: bilirubin ≤ 2.1 mg/dL or AST ≤124 U/L). Clin Cancer Res; 22(23); 5722-8. ©2016 AACR.
This population pharmacokinetics analysis evaluated the target-mediated drug disposition of inotuzumab ozogamicin (InO) through an empirical time-dependent clearance (CL t ) term and identified potential covariates that may be important predictors of variability in InO distribution and elimination. This analysis was conducted by pooling data from 2 studies of single-agent InO in patients with relapsed or refractory (R/R) B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), 3 studies of single-agent InO, 5 studies of InO plus rituximab (R-InO), and 1 study of R-InO plus chemotherapy in patients with R/R B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Pharmacokinetic data included 8361 InO concentration–time observations that were modeled using nonlinear mixed-effects analysis. Covariate relations were identified using generalized additive modeling on base model parameters and then tested in a stepwise manner via covariate modeling. InO concentration was described with a 2-compartment model with linear and time-dependent clearance components. Based on the final model, baseline body surface area was a covariate of the linear and time-dependent clearance components and volume of distribution in the central compartment; baseline percentage of blasts in the peripheral blood was a covariate of the decay coefficient of the time-dependent clearance term (CL t ); and concomitant rituximab treatment was a covariate of the linear clearance component (CL 1 ). The magnitude of change of each pharmacokinetic parameter due to these covariates was not considered clinically relevant. Therefore, no dose adjustment of InO for the treatment of patients with R/R B-cell ALL or NHL is needed on the basis of selected covariates. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s10928-018-9614-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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