Microelectrode arrays (MEAs) are widely used platforms in bioelectronics to study electrogenic cells. In recent years, the processing of conductive polymers for the fabrication of three-dimensional electrode arrays has gained increasing interest for the development of novel sensor designs. Here, additive manufacturing techniques are promising tools for the production of MEAs with three-dimensional electrodes. In this work, a facile additive manufacturing process for the fabrication of MEAs that feature needle-like electrode tips, so-called μ-needles, is presented. To this end, an aerosol-jet compatible PEDOT:PSS and multiwalled carbon nanotube composite ink with a conductivity of 323 ± 75 S m −1 is developed and used in a combined inkjet and aerosol-jet printing process to produce the μ-needle electrode features. The μ-needles are fabricated with a diameter of 10 ± 2 μm and a height of 33 ± 4 μm. They penetrate an inkjet-printed dielectric layer to a height of 12 ± 3 μm. After successful printing, the electrochemical properties of the devices are assessed via cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy. The μ-needles show a capacitance of 242 ± 70 nF at a scan rate of 5 mV s −1 and an impedance of 128 ± 22 kΩ at 1 kHz frequency. The stability of the μ-needle MEAs in aqueous electrolyte is demonstrated and the devices are used to record extracellular signals from cardiomyocyte-like HL-1 cells. This proof-of-principle experiment shows the μ-needle MEAs' cell-culture compatibility and functional integrity to investigate electrophysiological signals from living cells.

Electrodes for interfacing implantable electronics and neural tissue are of great importance to gain a better understanding of the nervous system and to help people suffering from impaired body functions due to nerve lesions or lost organ functionality. In particular, neurostimulation techniques for bioelectronic medicine rely on the development of mechanically and electrochemically stable electrodes. While contemporary electrodes are based mainly on metals, new materials are being designed to enhance the mechanical and electrochemical properties of the interface. In this work, a nerve interface based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) embedded in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is fabricated and investigated. The fabrication process relies on the selective vacuum filtration of CNT suspensions through a printed wax pattern. The mechanical and electrochemical stability of the nerve interface was validated by 10 000 stretching cycles up to 20% strain and >4 × 106 biphasic stimulation pulses with 32 μC cm−2 per phase. The feedline resistance and electrode impedance showed only minor alterations after the stress tests. The functionality of the nerve interface was demonstrated by successful stimulation of the central nerve cord of a horse leech applying stimulation conditions within the water window of the CNT/PDMS electrodes. This work shows the practical usability of CNT/PDMS composites as electrodes and feedlines in peripheral nerve interfaces for future neuroprosthetic devices.

Recent investigations into cardiac or nervous tissues call for systems that are able to electrically record in 3D as opposed to 2D. Typically, challenging microfabrication steps are required to produce 3D microelectrode arrays capable of recording at the desired position within the tissue of interest. As an alternative, additive manufacturing is becoming a versatile platform for rapidly prototyping novel sensors with flexible geometric design. In this work, 3D MEAs for cell-culture applications were fabricated using a piezoelectric inkjet printer. The aspect ratio and height of the printed 3D electrodes were user-defined by adjusting the number of deposited droplets of silver nanoparticle ink along with a continuous printing method and an appropriate drop-to-drop delay. The Ag 3D MEAs were later electroplated with Au and Pt in order to reduce leakage of potentially cytotoxic silver ions into the cellular medium. The functionality of the array was confirmed using impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and recordings of extracellular potentials from cardiomyocyte-like HL-1 cells.

Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) have experienced an unprecedented story of success. In particular, as of today, most people have likely come into contact with one of their two most famous examplesthe pregnancy or the SARS-CoV-2 antigen test. However, their sensing performance is constrained by the optical readout of nanoparticle agglomeration, which typically allows only qualitative measurements. In contrast, single-impact electrochemistry offers the possibility to quantify species concentrations beyond the pM range by resolving collisions of individual species on a microelectrode. Within this work, we investigate the integration of stochastic sensing into a μPAD design by combining a wax-patterned microchannel with a microelectrode array to detect silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by their oxidative dissolution. In doing so, we demonstrate the possibility to resolve individual nanoparticle collisions in a reference-on-chip configuration. To simulate a lateral flow architecture, we flush previously dried AgNPs along a microchannel toward the electrode array, where we are able to record nanoparticle impacts. Consequently, single-impact electrochemistry poses a promising candidate to extend the limits of lateral flow-based sensors beyond current applications toward a fast and reliable detection of very dilute species on site.

Both stereolithographic printing of microfluidics and inkjet printing of electronics are promising tools for the fabrication of lab‐on‐a‐chip devices. However, the combination of these two technologies has been a challenge so far, as the 3D‐printed components usually have to be bonded manually to the substrates functionalized with printed electronics. Here, a surface modification method is demonstrated for enabling the direct stereolithographic printing of microfluidic structures onto a variety of different substrates that are usually employed for printed electronics. The approach makes use of an acrylate‐terminated silane that covalently binds substrate and polymer network of the 3D print. The bonding strength is quantified and the compatibility of the concept with printed electrodes in a microfluidic channel is evaluated.