The evolution of knowledge regarding the anatomy and physiology of the spleen throughout Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages is described, and general perceptions about this organ during different eras along this time line are presented. The original words of great physicians from the period of time stretching from Ancient Egypt to the Avicennan era are quoted and discussed to demonstrate how knowledge of the spleen has evolved and to present the theories that dominated each era. Furthermore, theories about illnesses relating to the spleen are reported, which show how this organ was perceived-in terms of its function and anatomy-during each era.

In the present study a brief overview of the history regarding the development of the knowledge of the macroscopic and microscopic anatomical elements of the heart along with some embryological remnants of the heart has been conducted. The evolution of the awareness as regards the various anatomical and embryonic structures of the heart began from Greek medico-philosophers, such as Hippocrates, Herophilus, Erasistratus and Galen, however, such knowledge was enpowered from the meticulous study of philosophers and physicians until the era of modern anatomy. In specific, the following anatomical and embryological structures are displayed: aortic and pulmonary valve, auricles, bundle of Kent, cardiac nerves, conduction system of the heart, ductus arteriosus, intervenous tubercle of Lower, left atrial oblique vein and ligament of Marshall, limbus of fossa ovalis, mitral and tricuspid valve, nodes or nodules of Arantius, ovale foramen, septomarginal trabecula, sinus of Valsava, small cardiac veins or vessels of Thebesius, tendinous chordae and papillary muscles, tendon of the valve of the inferior vena cava and triangle of Koch, valve of the coronary sinus, valve of the inferior vena cava.

IntroductionThe possible appearance of congenital fusion of the second cervical vertebra with adjacent cervical vertebrae, along with its epidemiology, embryological development, and clinical manifestations, was the aim of the current study.MethodsThe osteological material of 93 dried second cervical vertebrae of both sexes were examined in order to identify the likely presence of congenital fusion with the neighboring vertebrae.ResultsAmong 93 axes, we identified one case of a congenitally fused second cervical vertebrae with the third and fourth cervical vertebrae, which accounted for a frequency of 1.08%. There was an incomplete fusion of the vertebral bodies and almost complete fusion of the laminae and facet joints.ConclusionThe knowledge of such rare vertebral synostosis is crucial for the neurosurgeon, orthopedist, and physician dealing with the cervical spine, as well as the anesthetist when performing procedures, such as endotracheal intubation.

The current study displays a very rare combination of ossified interclinoid ligaments at the sella turcica region associated with bilateral foramina of Vesalius. In a macerated skull four osseous bars interconnecting the clinoid processes bilaterally were detected. Specifically, two bilateral osseous bars were observed bridging the gap between the anterior and middle clinoid processes forming the so called caroticoclinoid foramen on each side and two additional osseous bridges linked the anterior and posterior clinoid processes, bilaterally. Furthermore, two distinct bilateral foramina of Vesalius were documented just anterior and medial to the foramen ovale. The awareness of the osseous sellar bridges is crucial for the physician and especially the neurosurgeon since their presence may complicate the removal of clinoid processes and induce damage of the internal carotid artery and oculomotor nerves. Furthermore, the likely existence of the foramen of Vesalius may lead to transfer of an infected thrombus into the cranial cavity and complicate a percutaneous trigeminal rhizotomy.

Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov is considered one of the most important anatomists and surgeons in the history of medicine. The Russian physician conducted more than 11,000 dissections and meticulously studied human anatomy, discovering important anatomical regions such as Pirogov's triangle. Pirogov developed surgical methods and techniques used by physicians for many decades such as Pirogov's amputation. Pirogov is also known for his contribution to war medicine, given his experience practicing medicine in the Crimean War as a surgeon, where he introduced innovative methods for the treatment of injured soldiers. Pirogov’s most important contribution to the scientific community is his humanistic and democratic mentality—which he maintained until the end of his life—elements necessary for the evolution of every modern physician and scientist.

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<p><strong>Objective</strong>. In the current study a brief review is presented of the coracobrachialis muscle’s morphological variability, action, embryological development and clinical significance. <strong>Case report</strong>. We report a case of a left-sided coracobrachialis muscle consisting of two bellies. The deep belly inserts into the usual site in the middle area of the anteromedial aspect of the left humerus, whereas the superficial belly inserts through a muscular slip into the brachial fascia and the medial intermuscular septum, forming a musculo-aponeurotic tunnel in the middle region of the left arm, for the passage of the median nerve, brachial artery and veins, medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve and ulnar nerve. <strong>Conclusion</strong>. Awareness of such a muscle variant should be kept in mind by physicians and surgeons during interpretation of neural and vascular disorders of the upper limb, since such a variant may potentially lead to entrapment neuropathy and/or vascular compression, predisposing to neurovascular disorders, as well as during preparation of that muscle in cases of utilizing it as a graft in reconstruction of defects.</p>

Myocardial bridging (MB) is considered as a topic of high interest since its occurrence in different studies is statistically significant, and the clinical manifestations of this phenomenon are complicated with cardiovascular diseases. Whether the MB participates in heart diseases and has a decisive effect to life-threatening situations is still under research, and many studies have been conducted to clarify the abovementioned question. A case report with a MB on the left anterior descending coronary artery is presented in the current study, and a review of the literature is provided as well. Cardiologists as well thoracic surgeons and radiologists should bear in their mind the potential presence of such variant during interpretation of angiographies and multidetector-computed tomography.