Background & Aims Biliary-committed progenitor cells (small cholangiocytes, SMCCs) from small bile ducts are more resistant to hepatobiliary injury than large mouse cholangiocytes (LGCCs) from large bile ducts. The definitive endoderm marker, FoxA2 is the key transcriptional factor that regulates cell differentiation and tissue regeneration. Our aim was to characterize the translational role of FoxA2 during cholestatic liver injury. Methods mRNA expression in SMCCs and LGCCs was assessed by PCR array analysis. Liver tissues and hepatic stellate cells from PSC and PBC patients were tested by real-time PCR for methylation, senescence and fibrosis markers. Bile duct ligation (BDL) and MDR2 knockout mice (MDR2−/−) were used as animal models of cholestatic liver injury with or without healthy transplanted large or small cholangiocytes. Results We demonstrated that FoxA2 was notably enhanced in murine liver progenitor cells and SMCCs, and was silenced in human PSC and PBC liver tissues relative to respective controls that are correlated with the epigenetic methylation enzymes DNMT1 and DNMT3B. Serum ALT and AST levels in NOD/SCID mice engrafted with SMCCs after BDL showed significant changes compared with vehicle-treated mice, along with improved liver fibrosis. Enhanced expression of FoxA2 was observed in BDL mouse liver after SMCC cell therapy. Furthermore, activation of fibrosis signaling pathways were observed in BDL/MDR2−/− mouse liver as well as in isolated hepatic stellate cells by laser capture microdissection, and these signals were recovered along with reduced hepatic senescence and enhanced hepatic stellate cellular senescence after SMCC engraft. Conclusions The definitive endoderm marker and the positive regulator of biliary development, FoxA2, mediates the therapeutic effect of biliary-committed progenitor cells during cholestatic liver injury.

Secretin receptor (SR), only expressed by cholangiocytes, plays a key role in the regulation of biliary damage and liver fibrosis. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of genetic depletion of SR in Mdr2 mice on intrahepatic biliary mass, liver fibrosis, senescence, and angiogenesis. 12 wk SR, Mdr2, and SR/Mdr2 mice with corresponding wild-type mice were used for the in vivo studies. Immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence was performed in liver sections for (i) biliary expression of SR; (ii) hematoxylin and eosin; (iii) intrahepatic biliary mass by CK-19; (iv) fibrosis by Col1a1 and α-SMA; (v) senescence by SA-β-gal and p16; and (vi) angiogenesis by VEGF-A and CD31. Secretin (Sct) and TGF-β1 levels were measured in serum and cholangiocyte supernatant by ELISA. In total liver, isolated cholangiocytes or HSCs, we evaluated the expression of fibrosis markers (FN-1 and Col1a1); senescence markers (p16 and CCL2); microRNA 125b and angiogenesis markers (VEGF-A, VEGFR-2, CD31, and vWF) by immunoblots and/or qPCR. In vitro, we measured the paracrine effect of cholangiocyte supernatant on the expression of senescent and fibrosis markers in human hepatic stellate cells (HHSteCs). The increased level of ductular reaction, fibrosis, and angiogenesis in Mdr2 mice was reduced in SR/Mdr2 mice. Enhanced senescence levels in cholangiocytes from Mdr2 mice were reversed to normal in SR/Mdr2 mice. However, senescence was decreased in HSCs from Mdr2 mice but returned to normal values in SR/Mdr2 mice. In vitro treatment of HHSteCs with supernatant from cholangiocyte lacking SR (containing lower biliary levels of Sct-dependent TGF-β1) have decreased fibrotic reaction and increased cellular senescence. Sct-induced TGF-β1 secretion was mediated by microRNA 125b. Our data suggest that differential modulation of angiogenesis-dependent senescence of cholangiocytes and HSCs may be important for the treatment of liver fibrosis in cholangiopathies.

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Cholestasis is a condition that leads to chronic hepatobiliary inflammation, fibrosis, and eventually cirrhosis. Many microRNAs (miRs) are known to play a role in fibrosis progression; however, the role of miR-21 during cholestasis remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to elucidate the role of miR-21 during cholestasis-induced biliary hyperplasia and hepatic fibrosis. Wild-type (WT) and miR21−/− mice underwent sham or bile duct ligation (BDL) for 1 wk, before evaluating liver histology, biliary proliferation, hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, fibrotic response, and Smad-7 expression. In vitro, immortalized murine biliary cell lines (IMCL) and human hepatic stellate cell line (hHSC) were treated with either miR-21 inhibitor or control before analyzing proliferation, apoptosis, and fibrotic responses. In vivo, the levels of miR-21 were increased in total liver and cholangiocytes after BDL, and loss of miR-21 decreased the amount of BDL-induced biliary proliferation and intrahepatic biliary mass. Also, loss of miR-21 decreased BDL-induced HSC activation, collagen deposition, and expression of the fibrotic markers TGF-β1 and α-SMA. In vitro, IMCL and hHSCs treated with miR-21 inhibitor displayed decreased proliferation and expression of fibrotic markers and enhanced apoptosis when compared to control treated cells. Furthermore, mice lacking miR-21 show increased Smad-7 expression, which may be driving the decrease in biliary hyperplasia and hepatic fibrosis. During cholestatic injury miR-21 is increased and leads to increased biliary proliferation and hepatic fibrosis. Local modulation of miR-21 may be a therapeutic option for patients with cholestasis.

Alcoholic liver disease remains a major cause of liver-related morbidity and mortality, which ranges from alcoholic steatohepatitis to fibrosis/cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, and the related mechanisms are understood poorly. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of miR-34a in alcohol-induced cellular senescence and liver fibrosis. We found that hepatic miR-34a expression was upregulated in ethanol-fed mice and heavy drinkers with steatohepatitis compared with respective controls. Mice treated with miR-34a Vivo-Morpholino developed less severe liver fibrosis than wild-type mice after 5 weeks of ethanol feeding. Further mechanism exploration showed that inhibition of miR-34a increased cellular senescence of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in ethanol-fed mice, although it decreased senescence in total liver and hepatocytes, which was verified by the changes of senescence-associated β-galactosidase and gene expression. Furthermore, enhanced cellular senescence was observed in liver tissues from steatohepatitis patients compared with healthy controls. In addition, the expression of transforming growth factor-β1, drosophila mothers against decapentaplegic protein 2 (Smad2), and Smad3 was decreased after inhibition of miR-34a in ethanol-fed mice. Our in vitro experiments showed that silencing of miR-34a partially blocked activation of HSCs by lipopolysaccharide and enhanced senescence of HSCs. Furthermore, inhibition of miR-34a decreased lipopolysaccharide-induced fibrotic gene expression in cultured hepatocytes. In conclusion, our data suggest that miR-34a functions as a profibrotic factor that promotes alcohol-induced liver fibrosis by reducing HSC senescence and increasing the senescence of hepatocytes.

Cholangiocytes, a small population of cells within the normal liver, have been the focus of a significant amount of research over the past two decades because of their involvement in cholangiopathies such as primary sclerosing cholangitis and primary biliary cholangitis. This article summarizes landmark studies in the field of cholangiocyte physiology and aims to provide an updated review of biliary pathogenesis. The historical approach of rodent extrahepatic bile duct ligation and the relatively recent utilization of transgenic mice have led to significant discoveries in cholangiocyte pathophysiology. Cholangiocyte physiology is a complex system based on heterogeneity within the biliary tree and a number of signaling pathways that serve to regulate bile composition. Studies have expanded the list of neuropeptides, neurotransmitters, and hormones that have been shown to be key regulators of proliferation and biliary damage. The peptide histamine and hormones, such as melatonin and angiotensin, angiotensin, as well as numerous sex hormones, have been implicated in cholangiocyte proliferation during cholestasis. Numerous pathways promote cholangiocyte proliferation during cholestasis, and there is growing evidence to suggest that cholangiocyte proliferation may promote hepatic fibrosis. These pathways may represent significant therapeutic potential for a subset of cholestatic liver diseases that currently lack effective therapies.

Activation of the secretin (Sct)/secretin receptor (SR) axis stimulates ductular reaction and liver fibrosis, which are hallmarks of cholangiopathies. Our aim was to define the role of Sct-regulated cellular senescence, and we demonstrated that both ductular reaction and liver fibrosis are significantly reduced in Sct, SR, and Sct/SR bile duct ligated (BDL) mice compared with BDL wild-type mice. The reduction in hepatic fibrosis in Sct, SR, and Sct/SR BDL mice was accompanied by reduced transforming growth factor-β1 levels in serum and cholangiocyte supernatant, as well as decreased expression of markers of cellular senescence in cholangiocytes in contrast to enhanced cellular senescence in hepatic stellate cells compared with BDL wild-type mice. Secretin directly stimulated the senescence of cholangiocytes and regulated, by a paracrine mechanism, the senescence of hepatic stellate cells and liver fibrosis via modulation of transforming growth factor-β1 biliary secretion. Targeting senescent cholangiocytes may represent a novel therapeutic approach for ameliorating hepatic fibrosis during cholestatic liver injury.

Background and Aims Human NAFLD is characterized at early stages by hepatic steatosis, which may progress to NASH when the liver displays microvesicular steatosis, lobular inflammation, and pericellular fibrosis. The secretin (SCT)/secretin receptor (SCTR) axis promotes biliary senescence and liver fibrosis in cholestatic models through down‐regulation of miR‐125b signaling. We aim to evaluate the effect of disrupting biliary SCT/SCTR/miR‐125b signaling on hepatic steatosis, biliary senescence, and liver fibrosis in NAFLD/NASH. Approach and Results In vivo, 4‐week‐old male wild‐type, Sct−/− and Sctr−/− mice were fed a control diet or high‐fat diet (HFD) for 16 weeks. The expression of SCT/SCTR/miR‐125b axis was measured in human NAFLD/NASH liver samples and HFD mouse livers by immunohistochemistry and quantitative PCR. Biliary/hepatocyte senescence, ductular reaction, and liver angiogenesis were evaluated in mouse liver and human NAFLD/NASH liver samples. miR‐125b target lipogenesis genes in hepatocytes were screened and validated by custom RT2 Profiler PCR array and luciferase assay. Biliary SCT/SCTR expression was increased in human NAFLD/NASH samples and in livers of HFD mice, whereas the expression of miR‐125b was decreased. Biliary/hepatocyte senescence, ductular reaction, and liver angiogenesis were observed in human NAFLD/NASH samples as well as HFD mice, which were decreased in Sct−/− and Sctr−/− HFD mice. Elovl1 is a lipogenesis gene targeted by miR‐125b, and its expression was also decreased in HFD mouse hepatocytes following Sct or Sctr knockout. Bile acid profile in fecal samples have the greatest changes between wild‐type mice and Sct−/−/Sctr−/− mice. Conclusion The biliary SCT/SCTR/miR‐125b axis promotes liver steatosis by up‐regulating lipid biosynthesis gene Elovl1. Targeting the biliary SCT/SCTR/miR‐125b axis may be key for ameliorating phenotypes of human NAFLD/NASH.