Aim To propose a model (the choros model) for species diversity, which embodies number of species, area and habitat diversity and mathematically unifies area per se and habitat hypotheses.Location Species richness patterns from a broad scale of insular biotas, both from island and mainland ecosystems are analysed.Methods Twenty-two different data sets from seventeen studies were examined in this work. The r 2 values and the Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) were used in order to compare the quality of fit of the choros model with the Arrhenius species-area model. The classic method of log-log transformation was applied.Results In twenty of the twenty-two cases studied, the proposed model gave a better fit than the classic species-area model. The values of z parameter derived from choros model are generally lower than those derived from the classic species-area equation.Main conclusions The choros model can express the effects of area and habitat diversity on species richness, unifying area per se and the habitat hypothesis, which as many authors have noticed are not mutually exclusive but mutually supplementary. The use of habitat diversity depends on the specific determination of the 'habitat' term, which has to be defined based on the natural history of the taxon studied. Although the values of the z parameter are reduced, they maintain their biological significance as described by many authors in the last decades. The proposed model can also be considered as a steppingstone in our understanding of the small island effect.

Aim To propose a new approach to the small island effect (SIE) and a simple mathematical procedure for the estimation of its upper limit. The main feature of the SIE is that below an upper size threshold an increase of species number with increase of area in small islands is not observed.Location Species richness patterns from different taxa and insular systems are analysed.Methods Sixteen different data sets from 12 studies are analysed. Path analysis was used for the estimation of the upper limit of the SIE. We studied each data set in order to detect whether there was a certain island size under which the direct effects of area were eliminated. This detection was carried out through the sequential exclusion of islands from the largest to the smallest. For the cases where an SIE was detected, a log-log plot of species number against area is presented. The relationships between habitat diversity, species number and area are studied within the limits of the SIE. In previous studies only area was used for the detection of the SIE, whereas we also encompass habitat diversity, a parameter with well documented influence on species richness, especially at small scales.Results An SIE was detected in six out of the 16 studied cases. The upper limit of the SIE varies, depending on the characteristics of the taxon and the archipelago under study. In general, the values of the upper limit of the SIE calculated according to the approach undertaken in our study differ from the values calculated in previous studies.Main conclusions Although the classical species-area models have been used to estimate the upper limit of the SIE, we propose that the detection of this phenomenon should be undertaken independently from the species-area relationship, so that the net effects of area are calculated excluding the surrogate action of area on other variables, such as environmental heterogeneity. The SIE appears when and where area ceases to influence species richness directly. There are two distinct SIE patterns: (1) the classical SIE where both the direct and indirect effects of area are eliminated and (2) the cryptic SIE where area affects species richness indirectly. Our approach offers the opportunity of studying the different factors influencing biodiversity on small scales more accurately. The SIE cannot be considered a general pattern with fixed behaviour that can be described by the same model for different island groups and taxa. The SIE should be recognized as a genuine but idiosyncratic phenomenon.

1. Dynamic energy budget (DEB) models describe how individuals acquire and utilize energy, and can serve as a link between dierent levels of biological organization. 2. We describe the formulation and testing of DEB models, and show how the dynamics of individual organisms link to molecular processes, to population dynamics, and (more tenuously) to ecosystem dynamics. 3. DEB models oer mechanistic explanations of body-size scaling relationships. 4. DEB models constitute powerful tools for applications in toxicology and biotechnology. 5. Challenging questions arise when linking DEB models with evolutionary theory.

1. Dynamic energy budget (DEB) models describe how individuals acquire and utilize energy, and can serve as a link between dierent levels of biological organization. 2. We describe the formulation and testing of DEB models, and show how the dynamics of individual organisms link to molecular processes, to population dynamics, and (more tenuously) to ecosystem dynamics. 3. DEB models oer mechanistic explanations of body-size scaling relationships. 4. DEB models constitute powerful tools for applications in toxicology and biotechnology. 5. Challenging questions arise when linking DEB models with evolutionary theory.

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We developed new methods for parameter estimation-in-context and, with the help of 125 authors, built the AmP (Add-my-Pet) database of Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) models, parameters and referenced underlying data for animals, where each species constitutes one database entry. The combination of DEB parameters covers all aspects of energetics throughout the full organism’s life cycle, from the start of embryo development to death by aging. The species-specific parameter values capture biodiversity and can now, for the first time, be compared between animals species. An important insight brought by the AmP project is the classification of animal energetics according to a family of related DEB models that is structured on the basis of the mode of metabolic acceleration, which links up with the development of larval stages. We discuss the evolution of metabolism in this context, among animals in general, and ray-finned fish, mollusks and crustaceans in particular. New DEBtool code for estimating DEB parameters from data has been written. AmPtool code for analyzing patterns in parameter values has also been created. A new web-interface supports multiple ways to visualize data, parameters, and implied properties from the entire collection as well as on an entry by entry basis. The DEB models proved to fit data well, the median relative error is only 0.07, for the 1035 animal species at 2018/03/12, including some extinct ones, from all large phyla and all chordate orders, spanning a range of body masses of 16 orders of magnitude. This study is a first step to include evolutionary aspects into parameter estimation, allowing to infer properties of species for which very little is known.

Aim To test the performance of the choros model in an archipelago using two measures of environmental heterogeneity. The choros model is a simple, easy-touse mathematical relationship which approaches species richness as a combined function of area and environmental heterogeneity.Location The archipelago of Skyros in the central Aegean Sea (Greece).Methods We surveyed land snails on 12 islands of the archipelago. We informed the choros model with habitat data based on natural history information from the land snail species assemblage. We contrast this with habitat information taken from traditional vegetation classification to study the behaviour of choros with different measures of environmental heterogeneity. R 2 values and Akaike's information criterion (AIC) were used to compare the choros model and the Arrhenius species-area model. Path analysis was used to evaluate the variance in species richness explained by area and habitat diversity.Results Forty-two land snail species were recorded, living in 33 different habitat types. The choros model with habitat types had more explanatory power than the classic species-area model and the choros model using vegetation types. This was true for all islands of the archipelago, as well as for the small islands alone. Combined effects of area and habitat diversity primarily explain species richness in the archipelago, but there is a decline when only small islands are considered. The effects of area are very low both for all the islands of the archipelago, and for the small islands alone. The variance explained by habitat diversity is low for the island group as a whole, but significantly increases for the small islands.Main conclusions The choros model is effective in describing species-richness patterns of land snails in the Skyros Archipelago, incorporating ecologically relevant information on habitat occupancy and area. The choros model is more effective in explaining richness patterns on small islands. When using traditional vegetation types, the choros model performs worse than the classic species-area relationship, indicating that use of proxies for habitat diversity may be problematic. The slopes for choros and Arrhenius models both assert that, for land snails, the Skyros Archipelago is a portion of a larger biogeographical province. The choros model, informed by ecologically relevant habitat measures, in conjunction with path analysis points to the importance of habitat diversity in island species richness.

Abstract.The recruitment to the adult stock of a fish population is a function of both environmental conditions and the dynamics of juvenile fish cohorts. These dynamics can be quite complicated and involve the size structure of the cohort. Two types of models, i-state distribution models (e.g., partial differential equations) and i-state configuration models (computer simulation models following many individuals simultaneously), have been developed to study this type of question. However, these two model types have not to our knowledge previously been compared in detail. Analytical solutions are obtained for three partial differential equation models of early life-history fish cohorts. Equivalent individual-by-individual computer simulation models are also used. These two approaches can produce similar results, which suggests that one may be able to use the approaches interchangeably under many circumstances. Simple uncorrected stochasticity in daily growth is added to the individual-by-individual models, and it is shown that this produces no significant difference from purely deterministic situations. However, when the stochasticity was temporally correlated such that a fish growing faster than the mean 1 d has a tendency to grow faster than the mean the next day, there can be great differences in the outcomes of the simulations.The great majority of models of ecological populations describe populations as homogeneous collections of organisms. However, to an increasing degree, ecologists have become aware that the internal age and size structures of populations can have a decisive influence on the population dynamics (Ebenman and Persson 1988). Size structure may be particularly important in populations in which growth is fairly plastic and feeding and vulnerability to predation depend on size. The first factor, plasticity in growth, leads to the potential for a wide spectrum of organism sizes in the population, even within cohorts of individuals of the same age. The second factor, size dependence of feeding and vulnerability, means that members of an age-class cohort that have different sizes will have different probabilities of success in surviving and reproducing.These factors affect the dynamics of a population cohort and thus have many ramifications, both theoretical and practical, in ecology. On the theoretical side, there are questions of appropriate parental strategies (e.g., size of eggs, early parental care) and individual growth strategies in the face of environments with various size-dependent food availabilities and risks of predation. On the practical side, the recruitment of juvenile fish to the adult classes in commercial fish species is extremely important but is not well understood. It is quite possible