The locus for the incomplete form of X-linked congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB2) maps to a 1.1-Mb region in Xp11.23 between markers DXS722 and DXS255. We identified a retina-specific calcium channel alpha1-subunit gene (CACNA1F) in this region, consisting of 48 exons encoding 1966 amino acids and showing high homology to L-type calcium channel alpha1-subunits. Mutation analysis in 13 families with CSNB2 revealed nine different mutations in 10 families, including three nonsense and one frameshift mutation. These data indicate that aberrations in a voltage-gated calcium channel, presumably causing a decrease in neurotransmitter release from photoreceptor presynaptic terminals, are a frequent cause of CSNB2.

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PurposeStargardt disease (STGD1) is an autosomal recessive retinopathy, caused by mutations in the retina-specific ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABCA4) gene. To establish the mutational spectrum and to assess effects of selected deep intronic and common genetic variants on disease, we performed a comprehensive sequence analysis in a large cohort of German STGD1 patients.MethodsDNA samples of 335 STGD1 patients were analyzed for ABCA4 mutations in its 50 coding exons and adjacent intronic sequences by resequencing array technology or next generation sequencing (NGS). Parts of intron 30 and 36 were screened by Sanger chain-terminating dideoxynucleotide sequencing. An in vitro splicing assay was used to test selected variants for their splicing behavior. By logistic regression analysis we assessed the association of common ABCA4 alleles while a multivariate logistic regression model calculated a genetic risk score (GRS).ResultsOur analysis identified 148 pathogenic or likely pathogenic mutations, of which 48 constitute so far unpublished ABCA4-associated disease alleles. Four rare deep intronic variants were found once in 472 alleles analyzed. In addition, we identified six risk-modulating common variants. Genetic risk score estimates suggest that defined common ABCA4 variants influence disease risk in carriers of a single pathogenic ABCA4 allele.ConclusionsOur study adds to the mutational spectrum of the ABCA4 gene. Moreover, in our cohort, deep intronic variants in intron 30 and 36 likely play no or only a minor role in disease pathology. Of note, our findings demonstrate a possible modifying effect of common sequence variants on ABCA4-associated disease.

RDH12 codes for a member of the family of short-chain alcohol dehydrogenases/reductases proposed to function in the visual cycle that supplies the chromophore 11-cis retinal to photoreceptor cells. Mutations in RDH12 cause severe and progressive childhood onset autosomal-recessive retinal dystrophy, including Leber congenital amaurosis. We generated Rdh12 knockout mice, which exhibited grossly normal retinal histology at 10 months of age. Levels of all-trans and 11-cis retinoids in dark-and light-adapted animals and scotopic and photopic electroretinogram (ERG) responses were similar to those for the wild type, as was recovery of the ERG response following bleaching, for animals matched for an Rpe65 polymorphism (p.L450M). Lipid peroxidation products and other measures of oxidative stress did not appear to be elevated in Rdh12 ؊/؊ animals. RDH12 was localized to photoreceptor inner segments and the outer nuclear layer in both mouse and human retinas by immunohistochemistry. The present findings, together with those of earlier studies showing only minor functional deficits in mice deficient for Rdh5, Rdh8, or Rdh11, suggest that the activity of any one isoform is not rate limiting in the visual response.Retinoid dehydrogenases/reductases (RDHs) perform critical oxidation-reduction reactions in the visual cycle mechanism that converts vitamin A (all-trans retinol) to 11-cis retinal, the lightabsorbing chromophore of the visual pigments in photoreceptor cells (Fig. 1) (14). One of these reactions involves the oxidation of 11-cis retinol produced by retinoid isomerohydrolase activity in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), resulting in formation of 11-cis retinal that is delivered to the photoreceptor cell outer segments. The second reaction involves reduction of all-trans retinal released from rhodopsin and cone opsins upon bleaching, resulting in formation of all-trans retinol that is returned to the RPE for trans-to-cis isomerization. A number of RDH isoforms are expressed in the RPE and/or the neuroretina that differ in terms of substrate specificity and sites of expression.Within the RPE, RDH5 is thought to be the key enzyme involved in converting 11-cis retinol to 11-cis retinal (25). Mutations in RDH5 in humans result in fundus albipunctatus, a form of congenital stationary night blindness (31). Since Rdh5 knockout mice exhibit very mild visual disturbances (7), it has been suggested that Rdh5 activity may be redundant with that of other isoforms. Consistent with this notion, mice deficient for Rdh11 and for prRdh, two isoforms expressed in the photoreceptors, exhibit a mild phenotype without signs of retinal degeneration (15,16). Functional interaction of RDH5 with RDH11 has been proposed (16), but studies showing that RDH11 is expressed in the photoreceptor cell inner segment complicate this interpretation (15). RDH10 is expressed in both the RPE and Müller cells and is specific for the oxidation of all-trans retinol (30).

X-linked cone dysfunction disorders such as Blue Cone Monochromacy and X-linked Cone Dystrophy are characterized by complete loss (of) or reduced L- and M- cone function due to defects in the OPN1LW/OPN1MW gene cluster. Here we investigated 24 affected males from 16 families with either a structurally intact gene cluster or at least one intact single (hybrid) gene but harbouring rare combinations of common SNPs in exon 3 in single or multiple OPN1LW and OPN1MW gene copies. We assessed twelve different OPN1LW/MW exon 3 haplotypes by semi-quantitative minigene splicing assay. Nine haplotypes resulted in aberrant splicing of ≥20% of transcripts including the known pathogenic haplotypes (i.e. ‘LIAVA’, ‘LVAVA’) with absent or minute amounts of correctly spliced transcripts, respectively. De novo formation of the ‘LIAVA’ haplotype derived from an ancestral less deleterious ‘LIAVS’ haplotype was observed in one family with strikingly different phenotypes among affected family members. We could establish intrachromosomal gene conversion in the male germline as underlying mechanism. Gene conversion in the OPN1LW/OPN1MW genes has been postulated, however, we are first to demonstrate a de novo gene conversion within the lineage of a pedigree.