Background Numerous studies reported an increase in mental disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic, but the specific causes for this increase are unclear. We therefore investigate whether pandemic-related occupational and financial changes (e.g., reduced working hours, working from home, financial losses) were associated with increased symptoms of depression and anxiety compared with the situation before the pandemic. Methods We analyzed data from the German National Cohort Study (NAKO). Between May and November 2020, 161,849 participants answered questions on their mental state and social circumstances. Responses were compared with data from the baseline survey before the pandemic (2014-2019). Linear fixed-effects models were used to determine whether individual changes in the symptoms of depression (PHQ-9) or anxiety (GAD-7) were associated with occupational/financial changes (controlling for covariates). Results A pronounced increase in symptoms was observed among those who became unemployed during the pandemic (+ 1.16 points on the depression scale, 95% confidence interval [0.91; 1.41], range 0-27). Increases were also seen for reduced working hours without short-term working allowance, increased working hours, working from home, insecurity regarding employment, and financial strain. The deterioration in mental health was largely statistically explained by the occupational and financial changes investigated in the model. Conclusions Depressive symptoms and anxiety disorders increased in the study population during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic and occupational and financial difficulties were an essential contributory factor. These strains should be taken into account both in the care of individual patients and in the planning of targeted prevention measures. Results suggest that welfare state benefits such as short-time allowance in times of crises may reduce mental load in affected populations.

certificates to Chinese companies until March 25, 2020. 7 They covered a total contract value of about 89.4 billion USD and were intended to exempt local exporters from fulfilling contracts with overseas parties by proving that non-performance of their contracts was due to COVID-19 related measures like holiday extensions or lockdowns. 8 On February 28, 2020, the French Ministry of Economy stated that the COVID-19 pandemic will be considered as a force majeure event and that penalties for late deliveries will not be applied in public procurement contracts. 9 Similar declarations were made by other governments. 10 Analogies between the COVID-19 pandemic and that of a natural disastera classical force majeure scenario 11can be made, making the initial focus of the debate exclusively on the force majeure doctrine understandable. However, in certain jurisdictions both force majeure and hardship doctrinesor force majeure and hardship clauses in the contracts themselves 12may be available and capable of excusing or modifying performance in circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic. 13 It is therefore important to understand the relationship between these two doctrines, whichin these and other unforeseen eventscan be a difficult task given that they are the products of various national legal traditions and have developed along different paths in different ways. 14 7 CCPIT Guides Enterprises to Leverage Force Majeure Certificates, which Help to Maintain Nearly 60% Contracts, http://en.ccpit.org/info/info_40288117668b3d9b017163990e5a082a.html (accessed April 20, 2020). 8 Id.; backed by the CCPIT certificates, the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) and the China National Petroleum Corp. (CNPC) issued force majeure notices to its customers, K. Christie, M Han, and L Shmatenko (2020 forthcoming), LNG Contract Adjustments in Difficult Times: The Interplay between Force Majeure, Change of Circumstances, Hardship, and Price Review Clauses, OGEL March 2020, 1, 12. 9 The original text of the declaration can be found here: https://www.vie-publique.fr/discours/273763bruno-le-maire-28022020-coronavirus (accessed April 20, 2020). The declaration was later listed among the government's measures for assisting businesses during the epidemic: https://www.economie.gouv.fr/dgccrf/mesures-daccompagnement-des-entreprises-impactees-par-le-coronavirus- covid-19 (accessed April 20, 2020). 10 The Iraqi government issued a similar declaration, qualifying the period of the COVID-19 crisis a force majeure event for all projects and contracts effective from February 20, 2020, https://gds.gov.iq/iraqscrisis-cell-extends-curfew-announces-additional-measures-to-contain-covid-19/ (accessed April 20, 2020); the declaration affected projects worth approximately 291 billion USD, https://www.offshore-technology.com/comment/iraq-covid-19-force-majeure-contracts/ (accessed April 20, 2020). 11 See infra Section 2.1. 12 See infra Section 4.3.

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It is generally acknowledged today that comparative law plays a decisive role in the harmonisation of European private law, in particular of European contract law.1 Dölle has emphasised this strong link between comparative law and European integration as early as 1950 in his report on the refoundation of the German Association of Comparative Law: