Timely molecular diagnosis of RB1 mutations enables earlier treatment, lower risk, and better health outcomes for patients with retinoblastoma; empowers families to make informed family-planning decisions; and costs less than conventional surveillance. However, complexity has hindered clinical implementation of molecular diagnosis. The majority of RB1 mutations are unique and distributed throughout the RB1 gene, with no real hot spots. We devised a sensitive and efficient strategy to identify RB1 mutations that combines quantitative multiplex polymerase chain reaction (QM-PCR), double-exon sequencing, and promoter-targeted methylation-sensitive PCR. Optimization of test order by stochastic dynamic programming and the development of allele-specific PCR for four recurrent point mutations decreased the estimated turnaround time to <3 wk and decreased direct costs by one-third. The multistep method reported here detected 89% (199/224) of mutations in bilaterally affected probands and both mutant alleles in 84% (112/134) of tumors from unilaterally affected probands. For 23 of 27 exons and the promoter region, QM-PCR was a highly accurate measure of deletions and insertions (accuracy 95%). By revealing those family members who did not carry the mutation found in the related proband, molecular analysis enabled 97 at-risk children from 20 representative families to avoid 313 surveillance examinations under anesthetic and 852 clinic visits. The average savings in direct costs from clinical examinations avoided by children in these families substantially exceeded the cost of molecular testing. Moreover, health care savings continue to accrue, as children in succeeding generations avoid unnecessary repeated anaesthetics and examinations.

Juvenile polyposis (JP) and hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) are clinically distinct diseases caused by mutations in SMAD4 and BMPR1A (for JP) and endoglin and ALK1 (for HHT). Recently, a combined syndrome of JP-HHT was described that is also caused by mutations in SMAD4. Although both JP and JP-HHT are caused by SMAD4 mutations, a possible genotype:phenotype correlation was noted as all of the SMAD4 mutations in the JP-HHT patients were clustered in the COOH-terminal MH2 domain of the protein. If valid, this correlation would provide a molecular explanation for the phenotypic differences, as well as a pre-symptomatic diagnostic test to distinguish patients at risk for the overlapping but different clinical features of the disorders. In this study, we collected 19 new JP-HHT patients from which we identified 15 additional SMAD4 mutations. We also reviewed the literature for other reports of JP patients with HHT symptoms with confirmed SMAD4 mutations. Our combined results show that although the SMAD4 mutations in JP-HHT patients do show a tendency to cluster in the MH2 domain, mutations in other parts of the gene also cause the combined syndrome. Thus, any mutation in SMAD4 can cause JP-HHT. Any JP patient with a SMAD4 mutation is, therefore, at risk for the visceral manifestations of HHT and any HHT patient with SMAD4 mutation is at risk for early onset gastrointestinal cancer. In conclusion, a patient who tests positive for any SMAD4 mutation must be considered at risk for the combined syndrome of JP-HHT and monitored accordingly.

For most missense variants of ENG and ACVRL1 reported to date, study of amino acid conservation showed good concordance between prediction of altered protein function and disease occurrence. The 39 families (20%) yet to be resolved may carry ENG, ACVRL1, or MADH4 mutations too complex or difficult to detect, or mutations in genes yet to be identified.

Urothelial carcinomas, or transitional cell carcinomas, represent the vast majority of human bladder cancers. Early molecular events associated with superficial bladder cancers include losses on chromosome 9p/9q and mutations in the p53 and retinoblastoma tumor suppressor genes. 1,2 The genomic alterations associated with disease progression, defined as the evolution of superficial bladder tumors to higher pathological stages, are complex and poorly understood. Conventional metaphase-based comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) has been used by several groups of investigators to study copy number imbalances in bladder cancer specimens of all stages and grades. These studies have illustrated the genomic complexity of bladder cancer and have identified recurrent regions of DNA copy number increase or high level amplification on several chromosomes including; 1q, 5p, 6p, 8q, 10p, 12q, 17q, and 20q. 3-9 These genomic regions are thought to contain oncogenes that may be important in tumor progression.Metaphase CGH studies have demonstrated copy number gains or high level amplifications at 6p22 in 7 to 55% of urothelial carcinomas, involving primarily the bladder, 3-9 but also those arising in the renal pelvis. 10 In addition, Bruch et al 11 reported 6p22 gains in 6 of 8 bladder cancer cell lines. Recently, Veltman et al 12 confirmed the metaphase CGH findings using array-based CGH to show copy number gains at 6p22 in 11 of a series of 41 bladder tumors. The changes at 6p22 in bladder cancer have been associated with high tumor cell proliferative activity, 9 tumors of high histological grade that are predominantly invasive, 3-9 and patients with distant metastases at initial presentation. 8 Based on these findings,

The RB1 gene is important in all human cancers. Studies of human retinoblastoma point to a rare retinal cell with extreme dependency on RB1 for initiation but not progression to full malignancy. In developed countries, genetic testing within affected families can predict children at high risk of retinoblastoma before birth; chemotherapy with local therapy often saves eyes and vision; and mortality is 4%. In less developed countries where 92% of children with retinoblastoma are born, mortality reaches 90%. Global collaboration is building for the dramatic change in mortality that awareness, simple expertise and therapies could achieve in less developed countries.