Summary Prions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are inherited ordered aggregates reliant upon the disaggregase Hsp104 for stable maintenance. The function of other factors in the natural prion cycle is unclear. We constructed yeast-bacterial chimeric chaperones to resolve the roles of Hsp104 domains, and by extension chaperones that interact with these domains, in prion propagation. Our results show that, as with amorphous aggregate dissolution, the Hsp70/40 system recruits prion substrates to Hsp104 via its top ring. By adapting our chimera to couple to an inactive protease “trap”, we monitored the reaction products of prion propagation in vivo. We find that prion maintenance is accompanied by translocation of prion proteins through Hsp104 hexamers and that both processes critically rely upon the Hsp40 Sis1. Our data suggests that yeast prion replication is a natural extension of chaperone activity in dissolving amorphous aggregates, distinguished from its ancestral reaction by the ordered, self-propagating structure of the substrate.
GroEL/S chaperonin ring complexes fold many unrelated proteins. To understand the basis and extent of the chaperonin substrate spectrum, we used rounds of selection and DNA shuffling to obtain GroEL/S variants that dramatically enhanced folding of a single substrate-green fluorescent protein (GFP). Changes in the substrate-optimized chaperonins increase the polarity of the folding cavity and alter the ATPase cycle. These findings reveal a surprising plasticity of GroEL/S, which can be exploited to aid folding of recombinant proteins. Our studies also reveal a conflict between specialization and generalization of chaperonins as increased GFP folding comes at the expense of the ability of GroEL/S to fold its natural substrates. This conflict and the nature of the ring structure may help explain the evolution of cellular chaperone systems.
Shigella dysenteriae serotype 1, a major cause of bacillary dysentery in humans, can use heme as a source of iron. Genes for the transport of heme into the bacterial cell have been identified, but little is known about proteins that control the fate of the heme molecule after it has entered the cell. The shuS gene is located within the heme transport locus, downstream of the heme receptor gene shuA. ShuS is a heme binding protein, but its role in heme utilization is poorly understood. In this work, we report the construction of a chromosomal shuS mutant. The shuS mutant was defective in utilizing heme as an iron source. At low heme concentrations, the shuS mutant grew slowly and its growth was stimulated by either increasing the heme concentration or by providing extra copies of the heme receptor shuA on a plasmid. At intermediate heme concentrations, the growth of the shuS mutant was moderately impaired, and at high heme concentrations, shuS was required for growth on heme. The shuS mutant did not show increased sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide, even at high heme concentrations. ShuS was also required for optimal utilization of heme under microaerobic and anaerobic conditions. These data are consistent with the model in which ShuS binds heme in a soluble, nontoxic form and potentially transfers the heme from the transport proteins in the membrane to either heme-containing or heme-degrading proteins. ShuS did not appear to store heme for future use.The Shigella spp. are the primary cause of bacillary dysentery in humans. Following ingestion, this pathogen transits the digestive system to the colon, where it invades the cells of the colonic epithelium. It then replicates inside the epithelial cells and spreads to adjacent cells. The resulting inflammation and tissue damage are responsible for the bloody diarrhea characteristic of dysentery.
Costimulation via CD137 (4-1BB) enhances antitumor immunity mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Anti-CD137 agonist antibodies elicit mild liver inflammation in mice, and the maximum tolerated dose of Urelumab, an anti-human CD137 agonist monoclonal antibody, in the clinic was defined by liver inflammation–related side effects. A protease-activated prodrug form of the anti-mouse CD137 agonist antibody 1D8 (1D8 Probody therapeutic, Pb-Tx) was constructed and found to be selectively activated in the tumor microenvironment. This construct, which encompasses a protease-cleavable linker holding in place a peptide that masks the antigen binding site, exerted antitumor effects comparable to the unmodified antibody but did not result in liver inflammation. Moreover, it efficaciously synergized with both PD-1 blockade and adoptive T-cell therapy. Surprisingly, minimal active Pb-Tx reached tumor-draining lymph nodes, and regional lymphadenectomy did not abrogate antitumor efficacy. By contrast, S1P receptor–dependent recirculation of T cells was absolutely required for efficacy. The preferential cleavage of the anti-CD137 Pb-Tx by tumor proteases offers multiple therapeutic opportunities, including neoadjuvant therapy, as shown by experiments in which the Pb-Tx is given prior to surgery to avoid spontaneous metastases.
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