Background: Immune abnormalities are occasioned during HIV infection consequently predisposing opportunistic infections. In part, these derangements result from impaired expression of a number of immunologically important cytokines. However, exact mechanisms behind HIV infectivity on immune system maturation and cytokine production is not well elucidated, more specifically during treatment with HAART. As such, this review compiles data from various studies with the aim of understanding alterations in cytokine network during the course of HIV infection, while assessing the impact of antiretroviral treatment towards cytokine expression.
The main aim of the study was to test for the antimicrobial potency of Aloe secundiflora, Bulbine frutescens, Tagetes minuta and Vernonia lasiopus against Staphylococcus aureus. All the plants showed a pronounced antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus with Tagetes minuta being the most active at low concentrations (MIC 8.9 mg/ml; MBC 10.0 mg/ml) whereas Vernonia lasiopus showing less activity (MIC 12.2 mg/ml; MBC 14.2 mg/ml). The efficacy test was carried out using the disc diffusion method. The standard antibiotics used were ciprofloxacin (5 µg/ml) and vancomycin (3 µg/ml) showed significant antimicrobial activity by producing zones of inhibition of 22 mm and 25 mm respectively. Dimethyl sulphoxide and distilled water were used as negative control. The extracts from the plants were also screened for the presence of phytochemicals with the results showing the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and saponins in all the extracts. The study suggested that the selected medicinal plants can be used effectively in the treatment of bacterial infection caused by Staphylococcus aureus.
Despite novel global measures to combat malaria, the disease remains a considerable healthcare burden especially in resource limited settings. It accounts for over 2 million deaths per year, most of which are among young children and pregnant women. Despite intensive research and development, only one candidate vaccine, radiationattenuated sporozoite (RAS, S) has made considerable progress to phase 3 clinical trials, albeit a documented partial efficacy of 46% against clinical malaria. However, it's on the road map of becoming the first licensed malaria vaccine with identified potential for development of deployable malaria vaccine. Success of this candidate forms a vital public health tool designed to eradicate global malaria. Parasite antigenic diversity, poor understanding of antimalarial immunity, and lack of immune correlates of protection constitute among the major hindrances of developing an effective malaria vaccine. Current vaccine models such as RAS, S targets Plasmodium falciparum during the preerythrocytic and erythrocytic stages, while a few other interventions direct their activity by blocking transmission against asexual stages, and/or against pregnancy-associated malaria. Recombinant vaccines have initially been designed from antigens containing one or two strains, which represents a significantly small fraction of the genetic diversity of malaria parasites, eventually making it cumbersome for investigators to establish strain-specific efficacy in clinical trials. This current review, therefore, seeks to provide an overview of major achievements in malaria research; highlighting potential applications, confounders while also showcasing future directions that purpose to enhance discovery of safe and effective anti-malaria vaccines.
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