This paper presents the extent to which kitchen structures influence household exposure to firewood-induced volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The sample consisted of 69 firewood users who were conveniently sampled from Senwabarwana Villages. An Integrated Environmental Health Risk Assessment framework (IEHRA) was adopted as the research methods of the current study. The VOC samples were collected from selected priority firewood species used in the study area, namely mushu (Umbrella thorn), mohwelere (red bushwillow), moretshe (Sickle bush), motswiri (Leadwood) and mokgwa (Black monkey thorn). Four VOCs, namely benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene were analysed from each of the selected plant species. Available literature shows that these VOCs are associated with the kind of common firewood used in the study area. The outcomes of this study reveal that mushu emits the highest concentration of the four selected VOCs, followed by moretshe, mohwelere, mokgwa and motswiri, respectively. The influence of kitchen structural factors such as number and positioning of windows, fireplace or stove type, roofing material and designs, among others on the concentration and indoor dispersion of VOCs was also investigated. Behavioural practices of households during fire making such as opening or closing of doors and windows during cooking, water heating and space heating were also found to influence exposure levels. Consequently, low VOCs emitting firewood species and kitchen structural designs have been confirmed as the key drivers of firewood-induced VOC exposure.
Despite improved electrification rates and several government policies introduced to encourage rural households to switch from traditional to modern fuels, most South African households still rely on firewood for their energy needs. This study sought to assess the factors that influence the use of firewood in Ga-Malahlela village in the Limpopo province. To this end, a structured questionnaire was administered to 67 households. Microsoft Excel and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences were used to code and log in the data. The chi-square test was used to determine the relationship between the choice of energy source(s) and socio-economic factors. It was established that firewood was still widely used: by 61% of the participants for cooking, by 64% for space heating, and by 46% for water heating. For lighting, electricity was used by 98.5% of the participants, while liquefied petroleum gas was used by 1.5%. The dependency on firewood was mainly due to the socio-economic status of the surveyed households, which included income, education level, household size, and preference. Rural firewood reliance continues, due to socio-economic factors such as indigence, preference, and the inaccessibility of services like free basic electricity. It is therefore recommended that the Polokwane Local Municipality should play a part in assisting poor communities with cleaner, cost-effective fuel alternatives such as solar energy, biogas, and liquefied petroleum gas.
This paper presents an integrated environmental health risk assessment framework to assess risks associated with firewood-induced indoor air pollution as an environmental health hazard. The combustion of firewood is associated with the emission of particulate matter, volatile organic and inorganic compounds or gases that are hazardous to human health and the environment. To date, there have been numerous studies and environmental health risk assessment approaches used to measure, monitor and assess environmental health risks associated with firewood-induced and related pollutants. However, many of the aforementioned risk assessment methods followed a narrow approach, thus rendering these studies methodologically one-sided. Consequently, some of these studies drew inferences about the air pollutants and the associated human health risks without identifying the tree species from which such firewood was harvested, as well as the different properties of wood and combustion characteristics including the dynamics of the fireplace where such combustion took place. Some of these studies failed to identify a specific community where particular firewood is used, since different firewood species grow in different areas and are therefore commonly used in communities where the wood is easily found. Most experimental studies on firewood-induced air pollution examined firewood emissions from undefined or unknown wood species. It is for these reasons that the current study aimed to close these methodological gaps by developing a comprehensive integrated environmental health risk assessment framework that considers the firewood user households, common types of wood and conditions of their harvesting, combustion and emissions in the laboratory environment. This study integrated observations, ethnobotanical meta-analysis and experimental study designs into one comprehensive integrated environmental health risk assessment (IEHRA) framework to assess the risks associated with exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from firewood combustion. The IEHRA was applied in the Senwabarwana villages to assess environmental health risks associated with selected firewood-induced volatile organic compounds. The results were sufficiently comprehensive to identify common ethnobotanical plant species used for firewood in the study area, the frequency of fire making, the conditions in which fire was made and common health problems experienced by firewood user households. Finally, different species of firewood were burnt in a laboratory under simulated kitchen conditions and VOCs were collected for analysis. The results of the VOCs samples differentiated high-and low-risk firewood species.
The constitution of South Africa states that local government must provide waste management services which includes waste removal, storage and disposal services, but local municipalities with combination of urban and rural areas often struggle to find the balance in providing services to both areas. Solid waste collection frequencies are higher in urban areas than in rural areas. Therefore this study sought to compare municipal solid waste management in gaMothapo and Seshego in Polokwane Local Municipality, Limpopo, South Africa. To achieve the aim and objectives of this study, mixed method research approach was applied. The approach was in a form of qualitative and quantitative methods which were applied concurrently. Study participants were selected using non-probability convenience sampling for gaMothapo and Seshego households and non-probability convenience sampling for municipal workers. The comparison was based on household demographics, household waste management choices and municipal solid waste management services. Structured questionnaires were utilized to arrive at a detailed understanding of how the community of gaMothapo and Seshego manage their solid waste. Semi-structured interviews were utilised to understand how municipality manage solid waste in gaMothapo as compared to Seshego and observations at the collection points were also used to gather more information on solid waste management. This study found that Polokwane local municipality uses different methods to manage waste in gaMothapo and Seshego. The households in Seshego rely mostly on weekly door to door solid waste collection by municipality. The households pay for the waste collection services monthly through the rates which are added to households municipal bill and is payable to the individual municipal account. Households in gaMothapo are provided with weekly nodal waste collection services for free. Shortage of resources and infrastructure together with lack of community awareness in both areas were found to hinder an effective solid waste management by Polokwane Local Municipality. The study also determined that Polokwane Local Municipality prioritise the provision of better waste removal services than waste minimisation through community awareness, recycling and material recovery. This study recommends that waste management awareness in both study areas should be conducted regularly.
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