The first half of this review examines the boundary between endocrinology and embryonic development, with the aim of highlighting the way hormones and signaling systems regulate the complex morphological changes to enable the intra-abdominal fetal testes to reach the scrotum. The genitoinguinal ligament, or gubernaculum, first enlarges to hold the testis near the groin, and then it develops limb-bud-like properties and migrates across the pubic region to reach the scrotum. Recent advances show key roles for insulin-like hormone 3 in the first step, with androgen and the genitofemoral nerve involved in the second step. The mammary line may also be involved in initiating the migration. The key events in early postnatal germ cell development are then reviewed because there is mounting evidence for this to be crucial in preventing infertility and malignancy later in life. We review the recent advances in what is known about the etiology of cryptorchidism and summarize the syndromes where a specific molecular cause has been found. Finally, we cover the recent literature on timing of surgery, the issues around acquired cryptorchidism, and the limited role of hormone therapy. We conclude with some observations about the differences between animal models and baby boys with cryptorchidism.

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Aim The Streptococcus anginosus group (SAG) comprises three bacterial species colonising the mouth and gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts and capable of serious pyogenic infections. Although well‐described in adults, studies in children are limited. Here, we characterise paediatric SAG infections from a single Australian centre. Methods Hospitalised patients aged ≤18 years with positive SAG cultures from January 2009 to December 2019 were identified from Pathology Queensland's Gold Coast Laboratory database and their medical records were reviewed. Results Two‐hundred children (62% male), median age 12 years (interquartile range 6–16), with positive SAG cultures were identified. Overall, 90% received intravenous antibiotics, 89% underwent surgical drainage, 23% were readmitted and 15% required additional surgery. The most common sites were the abdomen (39%), soft tissues (36%) and head and neck regions (21%). Since 2011, Pathology Queensland reported SAG at the species level (n = 133). Of these, S. anginosus was the most prevalent (39%), then S. constellatus (34%) and S. intermedius (27%). Compared with the other two species, S. intermedius was most commonly associated with head and neck infections (relative risk (RR) = 2.2, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.4–3.5), while S. constellatus (RR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.2–2.4) and S. anginosus (RR = 1.5, 95% CI 1.0–2.0) were each associated with a higher risk of intra‐abdominal infection than S. intermedius. Since February 2015, the number of children admitted with SAG‐associated intra‐abdominal infection per 1000 hospitalisations increased by 29% annually compared with an annual decline of 8% in previous years. Conclusions SAG infections occur at various anatomical sites. Despite antibiotics and surgical management, almost one‐quarter are re‐hospitalised for further treatment.