Deforestation and forest degradation are occurring continuously and posing serious threats to forests and people worldwide. In Myanmar, poor regulation and unsustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is affecting millions of hectares of natural forests; overexploitation of forest resources is one of the main drivers of forest degradation. Although evidence shows that the extraction of NTFPs results in forest degradation, there have been few studies on what drives rural people to depend on NTFPs and how to address these drivers in terms of policies and measures. Policies and measures are nationally enacted policies and actions that countries undertake to address the causes of deforestation and forest degradation. This study identifies which factors determine the dependence on NTFPs in forest-dependent communities. From these factors, we derived policy implications for the main causes of overexploitation of NTFPs to provide suggestions for developing policies and measures in the design of national Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) strategies. Focusing on the Taungoo District as a case of dependence on NTFPs by local communities, we conducted a qualitative and quantitative data collection procedure based on interviewing households in the local communities. NTFPs contributed the most to total household income and the main types of NTFPs exploited were charcoal making and bamboo selling. Households with lower education level, less agricultural land, less income from off-farm activities, lived under the poverty line or used only charcoal were more dependent on NTFPs in the study areas. Poverty and fuelwood usage were factors affecting NTFPs dependence for landowners while rice insufficiency, off-farm income and fuelwood usage most affected the NTFPs dependence for landless people. The results suggested that national strategies for REDD+ should take into account local features such as income opportunities and land tenure in order to make local people cooperate with the government to avoid deforestation and forest degradation.

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Agroforestry is an intensive land management system that integrates trees into land already used for crop and animal farming. This provides a diverse range of ecosystem services by bridging the gaps between agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry. It is an important approach to improve the environmental, economic, and social benefits of complex social–ecological systems in the Asia-Pacific region. This paper aims to examine the research trends in agroforestry and the current state of knowledge, as well as the research gaps in the ecosystem services of agroforestry in this region. A systematic mapping methodology was applied, where analysis units were academic articles related to agroforestry practices in the Asia-Pacific region. The articles published between 1970 and 2018 were collected through the international specialized academic database, SCOPUS. They were coded according to the types of agroforestry practices and ecosystem services. The research result indicates silvorable systems, especially plantation crop combinations, tree management, habitats for species, biological controls, and maintenance of genetic diversity and gene-pools, are the most prominent in the agroforestry research from the Asia-Pacific region. Approximately 60% of all research articles include case studies from India, China, Indonesia, and Australia. Research on agroforestry has changed following the international discourse on climate change and biodiversity. Therefore, this systematic map improves our understanding of the nature, volume, and characteristics of the research on ecosystem services with regard to agroforestry in the Asia-Pacific region. It provides scholars with a springboard for further meta-analysis or research on agroforestry and ecosystem services.

Forest resources are a salient and critical issue requiring ongoing attention by the Thai government. Community forest management (CFM) is a practice used to, among other things, resolve land use issues and regulate the extraction and use of non-timber forest product (NTFPs). Managing as a community forest can not only enhance the livelihoods of the local people but also improve their socio-economic condition. This research was conducted at the Ban Mae Chiang Rai Lum Community Forest located in Pa Mae Phrik National Forest Reserve in Thailand's northern province of Lampang. We collected species biodiversity data of the forest's total area of 3,925 ha using a systematic sampling method, and twenty-five 40 Â 40 m (0.16 ha) survey plots were established in the community forest. Interviews of 159 household heads and/or other household representatives were conducted using a designed questionnaire. The questionnaire focused on information regarding the households' NTFP utilization habits and engagement in CFM processes. A forest survey was conducted which found that there were 197 plant species, 144 genera, and 62 families in the community forest. Of these, 160 plant species were classified as having medicinal uses, 89 were used as food, 37 as extractives, 32 for firewood, and 12 for fibers. This study also revealed that unmonitored over-exploitation of NTFPs may negatively impact forest biodiversity. As surveyed, 68.55% of households depended on NTFPs. The value of the harvested NTFPs was 6.35% of the total community income. A positive correlation between NTFP income and CFM suggests that utilization of NTFPs combined with CFM can create income opportunities and promote participation in CFM. In addition, income earned from NTFPs and participation in CFM were directly related to the socio-economics of identifiable groups in this community. Laborers, merchants, and low-income families utilized NTFPs to a lesser degree. Single people, household heads, those with a bachelor's degree, and low income families were less likely to participate in CFM while land owners were more likely to do so. This study implies that the harvesting of NTFPs should not go unchecked, especially of species that are threatened or likely to be threatened if over-harvested. Efforts to enhance lower income household utilization, to more equitably distribute the benefits, and to incentivize community involvement should be prioritized as doing so is crucial to maintaining a healthy supply of NTFPs and safeguarding the community forest biodiversity.