Accumulation of carotenoids varies greatly among animal species and is not fully characterized. Circulating carotenoid concentration data in captive wild animals are limited and may be useful for their management. Serum carotenoid concentrations and dietary intakes were surveyed and the extent of accumulation categorized for 76 species of captive wild animals at Brookfield Zoo. Blood samples were obtained opportunistically from 275 individual animals immobilized for a variety of reasons; serum was analyzed for alpha- and beta-carotene, lutein + zeaxanthin, lycopene, beta-cryptoxanthin and canthaxanthin. Total carotenoid content of diets was calculated from tables and chemical analyses of commonly consumed dietary components. Diets were categorized as low, moderate or high in carotenoid content as were total serum carotenoid concentrations. Animals were classified as unknown, high, moderate or low (non-) accumulators of dietary cartenoids. Nonaccumulators had total serum carotenoid concentrations of 0-101 nmol/L, whereas accumulators had concentrations that ranged widely, from 225 to 35,351 nmol/L. Primates were uniquely distinguished by the widest range of type and concentration of carotenoids in their sera. Most were classified as high to moderate accumulators. Felids had high accumulation of beta-carotene regardless of dietary intake, whereas a wide range of exotic birds accumulated only the xanthophylls, lutein + zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin or cryptoxanthin. The exotic ungulates, with the exception of the bovids, had negligible or nondetectable carotenoid serum concentrations despite moderate intakes. Bovids accumulated only beta-carotene despite moderately high lutein + zeaxanthin intakes. Wild captive species demonstrated a wide variety of carotenoid accumulation patterns, which could be exploited to answer remaining questions concerning carotenoid metabolism and function.

Limited information is available on the utilization of different types of diets by captive exotic felid species. Utilization of diets by small exotic felids may differ depending on the diet fed. Eight sand cats (Felis margarita), which are small, 2- to 4-kg cats, were used to examine the digestibility of two types of diets: a raw meat-based diet and a dry kibble diet. Dry matter, crude protein and energy intakes and digestibilities were evaluated. Digestibilities for dry matter, energy, and crude protein were 83.5 +/- 4.8, 89.6 +/- 5.2, 92.4 +/- 5.3% for the raw meat-based diet and 72.7 +/- 12.3, 76.8 +/- 14.5, and 77.9 +/- 13.5% for the kibble diet. Physiological variables also were examined and included plasma taurine, vitamin A, retinyl palmitate, beta-carotene, calcium, and phosphorus. Plasma taurine means were 91.4 +/- 8.4 mumol/L in cats consuming the raw meat-based diet and 248.0 +/- 23.2 mumol/L in cats consuming the kibble diet. Plasma phosphorus was 5.2 +/- .1 and 4.5 +/- .1 mg/dL, respectively, in cats consuming raw meat-based and kibble diets. beta-Carotene was 25.2 +/- 2.9 and 2.9 +/- .3 micrograms/dL, respectively, for cats consuming the raw meat-based and kibble diets. These results indicate that diets formulated for small captive exotic felid species should be evaluated with respect to diet type and nutrient utilization.

(16.571.64 mg/dl) were similar to those in captive spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). Retinyl palmitate and retinyl stearate was present in howler samples and may have reflected recent dietary intake. Circulating a-tocopherol (997797.6 mg/dl) was similar to published values for other primates. Carotenoid levels in howlers were within the ranges reported for many primates. A significant finding was the presence of cadmium in samples that should be further studied. The number of individuals sampled was limited, and further investigation into the effects of seasonality is needed. However, this information provides new data for howler monkeys and for free-ranging primates in general.

The purpose of this work was to measure important nutritional status parameters for captive primates, compare those with published data, and look for a link with diet. The nutritional status of nine captive primate species was examined using biochemical analysis. The species were spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi), colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza), sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus), Schmidt's monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius), mandrills (Papio sphinx), baboons (Papio cynocephalus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). Diet information was collected by survey and the estimated nutritional composition of the diet for each species at each institution was compared with non-human primate nutrient requirements. On the average, the captive primates received diets that met or exceeded recommended dietary guidelines for vitamins A, D, and E for non-human primates. Blood samples were collected from 94 primates held at Brookfield Zoo, Fort Worth Zoo, Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens, and North Carolina Zoological Park and analyzed for lipids, vitamins A and E, D metabolites, and carotenoids. Several species showed differences among zoos for some nutrients, but values from any one zoo were not consistently lower. When monkeys were compared with great apes, monkeys had lower serum total cholesterol, triacylglyceride, and measured LDL cholesterol levels, but significantly higher vitamin D metabolite levels. Species differences were found for serum A, E, and carotenoid levels (with the exception of lycopene). Some differences were seen in serum retinol, retinyl *Correspondence to: Susan Crissey, Department of Nutritional Services, Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, IL 60513. E-mail: znnsouth@ix.netcom.com Received for publication April 29, 1999; Accepted September 20, 1999. 552Crissey et al.palmitate and γ-tocopherol. The relatively large number of animals contributing to this database and the fact that the data were collected from four zoos provide a substantial base for comparing nutritional status. Comparisons of these serum levels with previously published values for selected primates and humans revealed some differences.

Serum concentrations of several nutrients were measured in 12 captive wild felid species including caracal (Felis caracal), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), cougar (Felis concolor), fishing cat (Felis viverrinus), leopard (Panthera pardus), lion (Panthera leo), ocelot (Felis pardalis), pallas cat (Felis manul), sand cat (Felis margarita), serval (Felis serval), snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and tiger (Panthera tigris). Diet information was collected for these animals from each participating zoo (Brookfield Zoo, Fort Worth Zoo, Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens and North Carolina Zoological Park). The nutritional composition of the diets at each institution met the probable dietary requirements for each species except for the pallas cat. Blood samples were collected from each animal (n = 69) and analyzed for lipids (total cholesterol, triacylglycerides, HDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol), vitamin D metabolites [25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25(OH)D) and 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25(OH)(2)D)], vitamin A (retinol, retinyl stearate and retinyl palmitate), vitamin E (alpha- and gamma-tocopherol) and selected carotenoids. Species differences were found for all except triacylglycerides and 1,25(OH)(2)D. Genus differences were found for retinol, retinyl palmitate, retinyl stearate, gamma-tocopherol and beta-carotene. Circulating nutrient concentrations for many of the species in this study have not been reported previously and most have not been compared with the animals' dietary intakes. The large number of animals analyzed provides a substantial base for comparing the serum nutrient concentrations of healthy animals, for both wild and captive exotic species.