Background Annelids are a diverse group of segmented worms within Spiralia, whose embryos exhibit spiral cleavage and a variety of larval forms. While most modern embryological studies focus on species with unequal spiral cleavage nested in Pleistoannelida (Sedentaria + Errantia), a few recent studies looked into Owenia fusiformis, a member of the sister group to all remaining annelids and thus a key lineage to understand annelid and spiralian evolution and development. However, the timing of early cleavage and detailed morphogenetic events leading to the formation of the idiosyncratic mitraria larva of O. fusiformis remain largely unexplored. Results Owenia fusiformis undergoes equal spiral cleavage where the first quartet of animal micromeres are slightly larger than the vegetal macromeres. Cleavage results in a coeloblastula approximately 5 h post-fertilization (hpf) at 19 °C. Gastrulation occurs via invagination and completes 4 h later, with putative mesodermal precursors and the chaetoblasts appearing 10 hpf at the dorso-posterior side. Soon after, at 11 hpf, the apical tuft emerges, followed by the first neurons (as revealed by the expression of elav1 and synaptotagmin-1) in the apical organ and the prototroch by 13 hpf. Muscles connecting the chaetal sac to various larval tissues develop around 18 hpf and by the time the mitraria is fully formed at 22 hpf, there are FMRFamide+ neurons in the apical organ and prototroch, the latter forming a prototrochal ring. As the mitraria feeds, it grows in size and the prototroch expands through active proliferation. The larva becomes competent after ~ 3 weeks post-fertilization at 15 °C, when a conspicuous juvenile rudiment has formed ventrally. Conclusions Owenia fusiformis embryogenesis is similar to that of other equal spiral cleaving annelids, supporting that equal cleavage is associated with the formation of a coeloblastula, gastrulation via invagination, and a feeding trochophore-like larva in Annelida. The nervous system of the mitraria larva forms earlier and is more elaborated than previously recognized and develops from anterior to posterior, which is likely an ancestral condition to Annelida. Altogether, our study identifies the major developmental events during O. fusiformis ontogeny, defining a conceptual framework for future investigations.

Indirect development with an intermediate larva exists in all major animal lineages1, which makes larvae central to most scenarios of animal evolution2–11. Yet how larvae evolved remains disputed. Here we show that temporal shifts (that is, heterochronies) in trunk formation underpin the diversification of larvae and bilaterian life cycles. We performed chromosome-scale genome sequencing in the annelid Owenia fusiformis with transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling during the life cycles of this and two other annelids. We found that trunk development is deferred to pre-metamorphic stages in the feeding larva of O. fusiformis but starts after gastrulation in the non-feeding larva with gradual metamorphosis of Capitella teleta and the direct developing embryo of Dimorphilus gyrociliatus. Accordingly, the embryos of O. fusiformis develop first into an enlarged anterior domain that forms larval tissues and the adult head12. Notably, this also occurs in the so-called ‘head larvae’ of other bilaterians13–17, with which the O. fusiformis larva shows extensive transcriptomic similarities. Together, our findings suggest that the temporal decoupling of head and trunk formation, as maximally observed in head larvae, facilitated larval evolution in Bilateria. This diverges from prevailing scenarios that propose either co-option9,10 or innovation11 of gene regulatory programmes to explain larva and adult origins.

Background : Annelids are a diverse group of segmented worms within Spiralia, whose embryos exhibit spiral cleavage and a variety of larval forms. While most modern embryological studies focus on species with unequal spiral cleavage nested in Pleistoannelida (Sedentaria + Errantia), a few recent studies looked into Owenia fusiformis , a member of the sister group to all remaining annelids and thus a key lineage to understand annelid and spiralian evolution and development. However, the timing of early cleavage and detailed morphogenetic events leading to the formation of the idiosyncratic mitraria larva of O. fusiformis remain largely unexplored.Results : O. fusiformis undergoes equal spiral cleavage where the first quartet of animal micromeres are slightly larger than the vegetal macromeres. Cleavage results in a coeloblastula approximately five hours post fertilization (hpf) at 19 ºC. Gastrulation occurs via invagination and completes four hours later, with putative mesodermal precursors and the chaetoblasts appearing 10 hpf at the dorsoposterior side. Soon after, at 11 hpf, the apical tuft emerges, followed by the first neurons (as revealed by the expression of elav1 and synaptotagmin1 ) in the apical organ and the prototroch by 13 hpf. Muscles connecting the chaetal sac to various larval tissues develop around 18 hpf and by the time the mitraria is fully formed at 22 hpf, there are FMRFamide + neurons in the apical organ and prototroch, the latter forming a prototrochal ring. As the mitraria feeds, it grows in size and the prototroch expands through active proliferation. The larva becomes competent after ~3 weeks post fertilization at 15 ºC, when a conspicuous juvenile rudiment has formed ventrally.Conclusions : O. fusiformis embryogenesis is similar to that of other equal spiral cleaving annelids, supporting that equal cleavage is associated with the formation of a coeloblastula, gastrulation via invagination, and a feeding trochophore-like larva in Annelida. The nervous system of the mitraria larva forms earlier and is more complex than previously recognized and develops from anterior to posterior, which is likely an ancestral condition to Annelida. Altogether, our study identifies the major developmental events during O. fusiformis ontogeny, defining a conceptual framework for future investigations.

Background: Annelids are a diverse group of segmented worms within Spiralia, whose embryos exhibit spiral cleavage and a variety of larval forms. While most modern embryological studies focus on species with unequal spiral cleavage nested in Pleistoannelida (Sedentaria + Errantia), a few recent studies looked into Owenia fusiformis, a member of the sister group to all remaining annelids and thus a key lineage to understand annelid and spiralian evolution and development. However, the timing of early cleavage and detailed morphogenetic events leading to the formation of the idiosyncratic mitraria larva of O. fusiformis remain largely unexplored. Results: O. fusiformis undergoes equal spiral cleavage where the first quartet of animal micromeres are slightly larger than the vegetal macromeres. Cleavage results in a coeloblastula approximately five hours post fertilization (hpf) at 19 °C. Gastrulation occurs via invagination and completes four hours later, with putative mesodermal precursors and the chaetoblasts appearing 10 hpf at the dorsoposterior side. Soon after, at 11 hpf, the apical tuft emerges, followed by the first neurons (as revealed by the expression of elav1 and synaptotagmin1) in the apical organ and the prototroch by 13 hpf. Muscles connecting the chaetal sac to various larval tissues develop around 18 hpf and by the time the mitraria is fully formed at 22 hpf, there are FMRFamide+ neurons in the apical organ and prototroch, the latter forming a prototrochal ring. As the mitraria feeds, it grows in size and the prototroch expands through active proliferation. The larva becomes competent after ~3 weeks post fertilization at 15 °C, when a conspicuous juvenile rudiment has formed ventrally. Conclusions: O. fusiformis embryogenesis is similar to that of other equal spiral cleaving annelids, supporting that equal cleavage is associated with the formation of a coeloblastula, gastrulation via invagination, and a feeding trochophore-like larva in Annelida. The nervous system of the mitraria larva forms earlier and is more complex than previously recognised and develops from anterior to posterior, which is likely an ancestral condition to Annelida. Altogether, our study identifies the major developmental events during O. fusiformis ontogeny, defining a conceptual framework for future investigations.

Indirect development with an intermediate larva exists in all major animal lineages, and thus larvae are central to most scenarios for animal evolution. Yet how larvae evolved remains disputed. Here we show that changes in the timing of trunk formation underpin the diversification of larvae and bilaterian life cycles. Combining chromosome-scale genome sequencing with transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling in the slow-evolving oweniid Owenia fusiformis, we found that different genes and genomic regulatory elements control the development of its feeding larva and adult stage. First, O. fusiformis embryos develop into an enlarged anterior domain that forms larval tissues and the adult head, as posterior growth and trunk patterning is deferred to pre-metamorphic stages. These traits also occur in the so-called "head larvae" of other bilaterians, with whom O. fusiformis larva shows extensive transcriptomic similarities. Conversely, animals with non-feeding larvae and gradual metamorphoses, such as the annelid Capitella teleta, start trunk differentiation during embryogenesis, like direct developers. Together, our findings suggest that the ancestral temporal decoupling of head and trunk formation, as retained in extant "head larvae", allowed larval evolution in Bilateria, questioning prevailing scenarios that propose either co-option or innovation of gene regulatory programmes to explain larva and adult origins.

Our understanding of the mechanisms that modulate gene expression in animals is strongly biased by studying a handful of model species that mainly belong to three groups: Insecta, Nematoda and Vertebrata. However, over half of the animal phyla belong to Spiralia, a morphologically and ecologically diverse animal clade with many species of economic and biomedical importance. Therefore, investigating genome regulation in this group is central to uncovering ancestral and derived features in genome functioning in animals, which can also be of significant societal impact. Here, we focus on five aspects of gene expression regulation to review our current knowledge of functional genomics in Spiralia. Although some fields, such as single-cell transcriptomics, are becoming more common, the study of chromatin accessibility, DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications and genome architecture are still in their infancy. Recent efforts to generate chromosome-scale reference genome assemblies for greater species diversity and optimise state-of-the-art approaches for emerging spiralian research systems will address the existing knowledge gaps in functional genomics in this animal group.

Indirect development with an intermediate larva exists in all major animal lineages, and thus larvae are central to most scenarios for animal evolution. Yet how larvae evolved remains disputed. Here we show that changes in the timing of trunk formation underpin the diversification of larvae and bilaterian life cycles. Combining chromosome-scale genome sequencing with transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling in the slow-evolving oweniid Owenia fusiformis, we found that different genes and genomic regulatory elements control the development of its feeding larva and adult stage. First, O. fusiformis embryos develop into an enlarged anterior domain that forms larval tissues and the adult head, as posterior growth and trunk patterning is deferred to pre-metamorphic stages. These traits also occur in the so-called "head larvae" of other bilaterians, with whom O. fusiformis larva shows extensive transcriptomic similarities. Conversely, animals with non-feeding larvae and gradual metamorphoses, such as the annelid Capitella teleta, start trunk differentiation during embryogenesis, like direct developers. Together, our findings suggest that the ancestral temporal decoupling of head and trunk formation, as retained in extant "head larvae", allowed larval evolution in Bilateria, questioning prevailing scenarios that propose either co-option or innovation of gene regulatory programmes to explain larva and adult origins.