Abstract-We consider the definition of the Expedited Forwarding Per-Hop Behaviour (EF PHB) as given in RFC 2598 [1], and its impact on worst case end-to-end delay jitter. On one hand, the definition in RFC 2598 can be used to predict extremely low end-to-end delay jitter, independent of the network scale. On the other hand, we find that the worst case delay jitter can be made arbitrarily large, if we allow networks to become arbitrarily large; this is in contradiction with the previous statement. We analyze where the contradiction originates, and find the explanation. It resides in the fact that the definition in RFC 2598 is not easily implementable in schedulers we know of, mainly because it is not formal enough, and also because it does not contain an error term. We propose a new definition for the EF PHB, called "Packet Scale Rate Guarantee", which preserves the spirit of RFC 2598, while allowing a number of reasonable implementations, and has very useful properties for per-node and end-to-end network engineering. We show that this definition is stronger than the rate-latency service curve guarantee. Then we propose some proven bounds on delay jitter for networks implementing this new definition, both in cases without loss and with loss.
BackgroundDespite a global recognition from all stakeholders of the gravity and urgency of health worker shortage in Africa, little progress has been achieved to improve health worker coverage in many of the African human resources for health (HRH) crisis countries. The problem consists in how policy is made, how leaders are accountable, how the World Health Organization (WHO) and foreign donors encourage (or distort) health policy, and how development objectives are prioritized in these countries.MethodsThis paper uses political economy analysis, which stems from a recognition that the solution to the shortage of health workers across Africa involves more than a technical response. A number of institutional arrangements dampen investments in HRH, including a mismatch between officials’ tenure in office and program results, the vertical nature of health programming, the modalities of Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) in health, the structures of the global health community, and the weak capacity in HRH units within Ministries of Health. A major change in policymaking would only occur with a disruption to the political or institutional order.Results/conclusionsThe case study of Ethiopia, who has increased its health workforce dramatically over the last 20 years, disrupted previous institutional arrangements through the power of ideas—HRH as a key intermediate development objective. The framing of HRH created the rationale for the political commitment to HRH investment. Ethiopia demonstrates that political will coupled with strong state capacity and adequate resource mobilization can overcome the institutional hurdles above. Donors will follow the lead of a country with long-term political commitment to HRH, as they did in Ethiopia.
Abstract-Adaptive filters are often used in systems that need to adjust to unknown environments. Communication channels with frequency nulls, signals that lack energy in a frequency band, and transducers with a finite bandwidth present special problems since adaptive filters can develop a large gain at frequencies where excitation is lacking. Such magnitude response peaks can cause problems if unchecked. This paper suggests a procedure for detecting and controlling magnitude response peaks that uses a balanced model reduction technique to form a low-order IIR filter that approximates the performance of the filter. The poles are then studied to determine if magnitude response peaks are present. If a peak is detected, then "leakage to a target" is used to gradually reduce the peak with minimal effect on the equalizer's response at other frequencies. Several useful bounds on the equalizer frequency response magnitude are derived, and the frequency domain behavior of the leakage to a target algorithm is analyzed. A case study is provided.
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