Children 2 and 3 years of age were presented a memory task that required recalling a particular location at the end of a delay. At the beginning of the delay, one half of the children were instructed to remember the location and one half were instructed simply to wait. In two separate studies, 3-year-olds who were instructed to remember were observed to engage in behaviors during the delay which seemed designed to increase their recall, in contrast to 3-year-olds who were instructed to wait. In one of these studies, additional observations also showed that a positive relation existed between such delay period memory behavior and later recall. This differentiated, deliberate memory behavior was not observed for 2-year-olds in a similar task.
Virtual field trip is a way of providing users with some knowledge and exposure of a facility without requiring them to physically visit the location. Due to the high computational costs that are necessary to produce virtual environments (VEs), the potential for photorealism is sacrificed. Often these three-dimensional (3D) modeled applications use an unrealistic VE and, therefore, do not provide a full depiction of real-world environments. Panoramas can be used to showcase complex scenarios that are difficult to model and are computationally expensive to view in virtual reality (VR). Utilizing 360° panoramas can provide a low-cost and quick-to-capture alternative with photorealistic representations of the actual environment. The advantages of photorealism over 3D models for training and education are not clearly defined. This paper initially summarizes the development of a VR training application and initial pilot study. Quantitative and qualitative study then was conducted to compare the effectiveness of a 360° panorama VR training application and a 3D modeled one. Switching to a mobile VR headset saves money, increases mobility, decreases set-up and breakdown time, and has less spatial requirements. Testing results of the 3D modeled VE group had an average normalized gain of 0.03 and the 360° panorama group, 0.43. Although the 3D modeled group had slightly higher realism according to the presence questionnaire and had slightly higher averages in the comparative analysis questionnaire, the 360° panorama application has shown to be the most effective for training and the quickest to develop.
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