This review focuses on how the expression of parental autonomy support (particularly the promotion of independence and volitional functioning) and its impact on adolescent adjustment varies across cultural groups in the United States. We review history involving the conceptualization of parental autonomy support and its impact on adolescent development, discuss cross‐cultural research focused on the expression and impact of autonomy support, review theoretical perspectives suggesting the importance of studying variability in parental autonomy support across cultural groups, and summarize research conducted in the United States across four racial/ethnic groups: European American, African American, Latinx, and Asian American. Much of this research does not adequately reflect current understanding regarding the forms of autonomy support, nor is it grounded in theoretical perspectives recognizing the role of culture in shaping parental behaviors. We conclude by discussing directions for further research to overcome existing shortcomings in this literature.
This review focuses on the measurement of parental autonomy support across different developmental periods. We begin with a summary of current theoretical perspectives on autonomy development and how they have informed the conceptualization of autonomy supportive parenting. We then discuss four different developmental periods (infancy/early childhood, middle childhood, early/middle adolescence, and late adolescence), summarizing developmental considerations for each and how such considerations have an impact on both the nature of autonomy support and how it is assessed. We hope that this information will serve as a resource for researchers who study parental autonomy support across a range of developmental periods, supporting them as they make measurement decisions.
BACKGROUND Mass media campaigns are effective in influencing a broad range of health behaviors. Prior to launching a campaign, developers often conduct ad testing to help identify strengths and weaknesses of the message executions among the campaign’s target audience. Endorsement of a six-item perceived message effectiveness (PME) measure is one approach commonly used for message selection; however, this scale often does not produce enough specificity to make important decisions on ad optimization and is typically used with adult populations for smoking cessation messages. OBJECTIVE This study includes the development of the Message Assessment Scale, a new tobacco prevention message testing scale for youth and young adults. METHODS Data were derived from numerous cross-sectional surveys designed to test the relevance and potential efficacy of anti-tobacco truth® campaign ads. Participants aged 15-24 (N=6,108) responded to a set of 12 core attitudinal items including relevance (both personal and cultural) as well as comprehension of the ad’s main message. RESULTS Data analysis included factor analyses which resulted in four scales. The four scales were significantly correlated with fact recall and vape intentions. CONCLUSIONS This set of items expands the portfolio of ad testing measures for ads focused on tobacco use prevention. Findings can inform how best to optimize ad executions and message delivery for health behavior campaigns, particularly those focused on tobacco use prevention among youth and young adult populations.
This study explores student loans, family support, and reciprocity during the transition out of college into adulthood. We examine experiences of family financial assistance and co-living among college students and graduates with loans, and whether support and reciprocity systematically differed by loan presence. We conducted four waves of qualitative interviews with college graduates with loans at two public universities, in their senior year and annually for three years after graduation (N = 24 participants, 72 interviews), and collected two rounds of survey data with undergraduates (N = 3251) and graduates 15 months after graduation (N = 176) from the same universities. Financial support from and living with family was common. Those with loans gave more money to family, even when they did not live with them. Interviews revealed that reciprocity, or expectations to help family in return for help received, could be burdensome. Findings indicate that receiving help may prolong-but also facilitate-the transition to adulthood.
Background Mass media campaigns are effective for influencing a broad range of health behaviors. Prior to launching a campaign, developers often conduct ad testing to help identify the strengths and weaknesses of the message executions among the campaign’s target audience. This process allows for changes to be made to ads, making them more relevant to or better received by the target audience before they are finalized. To assess the effectiveness of an ad’s message and execution, campaign ads are often rated using a single item or multiple items on a scale, and scores are calculated. Endorsement of a 6-item perceived message effectiveness (PME) scale, defined as the practice of using a target audience’s evaluative ratings to inform message selection, is one approach commonly used to select messages for antitobacco campaigns; however, the 6-item PME scale often does not produce enough specificity to make important decisions on ad optimization. In addition, the PME scale is typically used with adult populations for smoking cessation messages. Objective This study includes the development of the Message Assessment Scale, a new tobacco prevention message testing scale for youth and young adults. Methods Data were derived from numerous cross-sectional surveys designed to test the relevance and potential efficacy of antitobacco truth campaign ads. Participants aged 15-24 years (N=6108) responded to a set of 12 core attitudinal items, including relevance (both personal and cultural) as well as comprehension of the ad’s main message. Results Analyses were completed in two phases. In phase I, mean scores were calculated for each of the 12 attitudinal items by ad type, with higher scores indicating more endorsement of the item. Next, all items were submitted to exploratory factor analysis. A four-factor model fit was revealed and verified with confirmatory factor analysis, resulting in the following constructs: personally relevant, culturally relevant, the strength of messaging, and negative attributes. In phase II, ads were categorized by performance (high/medium/low), and constructs identified in phase I were correlated with key campaign outcomes (ie, main fact agreement and likelihood to vape). Phase II confirmed that the four constructs identified in phase I were all significantly correlated with main fact agreement and vape intentions. Conclusions Findings from this study advance the field by establishing an expanded set of validated items to comprehensively assess the potential effectiveness of advertising executions. This set of items expands the portfolio of ad testing measures for ads focused on tobacco use prevention. Findings can inform how best to optimize ad executions and message delivery for health behavior campaigns, particularly those focused on tobacco use prevention among youth and young adult populations.
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