The mechanism of colonization of intercellular spaces by the soil-borne and vascular plant-pathogenic bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum strain OE1-1 after invasion into host plants remains unclear. To analyse the behaviour of OE1-1 cells in intercellular spaces, tomato leaves with the lower epidermis layers excised after infiltration with OE1-1 were observed under a scanning electron microscope. OE1-1 cells formed microcolonies on the surfaces of tomato cells adjacent to intercellular spaces, and then aggregated surrounded by an extracellular matrix, forming mature biofilm structures. Furthermore, OE1-1 cells produced mushroom-type biofilms when incubated in fluids of apoplasts including intercellular spaces, but not xylem fluids from tomato plants. This is the first report of biofilm formation by R. solanacearum on host plant cells after invasion into intercellular spaces and mushroom-type biofilms produced by R. solanacearum in vitro. Sugar application led to enhanced biofilm formation by OE1-1. Mutation of lecM encoding a lectin, RS-IIL, which reportedly exhibits affinity for these sugars, led to a significant decrease in biofilm formation. Colonization in intercellular spaces was significantly decreased in the lecM mutant, leading to a loss of virulence on tomato plants. Complementation of the lecM mutant with native lecM resulted in the recovery of mushroom-type biofilms and virulence on tomato plants. Together, our findings indicate that OE1-1 produces mature biofilms on the surfaces of tomato cells after invasion into intercellular spaces. RS-IIL may contribute to biofilm formation by OE1-1, which is required for OE1-1 virulence.

Here we report the genetic analyses of histone lysine methyltransferase (KMT) genes in the phytopathogenic fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Eight putative M. oryzae KMT genes were targeted for gene disruption by homologous recombination. Phenotypic assays revealed that the eight KMTs were involved in various infection processes at varying degrees. Moset1 disruptants (Δmoset1) impaired in histone H3 lysine 4 methylation (H3K4me) showed the most severe defects in infection-related morphogenesis, including conidiation and appressorium formation. Consequently, Δmoset1 lost pathogenicity on wheat host plants, thus indicating that H3K4me is an important epigenetic mark for infection-related gene expression in M. oryzae. Interestingly, appressorium formation was greatly restored in the Δmoset1 mutants by exogenous addition of cAMP or of the cutin monomer, 16-hydroxypalmitic acid. The Δmoset1 mutants were still infectious on the super-susceptible barley cultivar Nigrate. These results suggested that MoSET1 plays roles in various aspects of infection, including signal perception and overcoming host-specific resistance. However, since Δmoset1 was also impaired in vegetative growth, the impact of MoSET1 on gene regulation was not infection specific. ChIP-seq analysis of H3K4 di- and tri-methylation (H3K4me2/me3) and MoSET1 protein during infection-related morphogenesis, together with RNA-seq analysis of the Δmoset1 mutant, led to the following conclusions: 1) Approximately 5% of M. oryzae genes showed significant changes in H3K4-me2 or -me3 abundance during infection-related morphogenesis. 2) In general, H3K4-me2 and -me3 abundance was positively associated with active transcription. 3) Lack of MoSET1 methyltransferase, however, resulted in up-regulation of a significant portion of the M. oryzae genes in the vegetative mycelia (1,491 genes), and during infection-related morphogenesis (1,385 genes), indicating that MoSET1 has a role in gene repression either directly or more likely indirectly. 4) Among the 4,077 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between mycelia and germination tubes, 1,201 and 882 genes were up- and down-regulated, respectively, in a Moset1-dependent manner. 5) The Moset1-dependent DEGs were enriched in several gene categories such as signal transduction, transport, RNA processing, and translation.

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White root rot, caused by Rosellinia necatrix, is a serious soilborne disease of fruit trees and other woody plants. R. necatrix isolate W370 contains 12 segments of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) that is believed to represent a possible member of the family Reoviridae. W370 was weakly virulent and its hyphal-tip strains became dsRNA free and strongly virulent. The 12 segments of W370dsRNA were transmitted to hygromycin B-resistant strain RT37-1, derived from a dsRNA-free strain of W370 in all or none fashion through hyphal contact with W370. The W370dsRNA-transmitted strains were less virulent than their parent strain RT37-1 on apple seedlings, with mortality ranging between 0 to 16.7% in apple seedlings that were inoculated with the W370dsRNA-containing strains and 50 to 100% for seedlings inoculated with the dsRNA-free strains. Some W370dsRNA-containing strains killed greater than 16.7% of seedlings, but these were found to have lost the dsRNA in planta. These results indicate that W370dsRNA is a hypovirulence factor in R. necatrix. In addition, a strain lost one segment (S8) of W370dsRNA during subculture, and the S8-deficient mutant strain also exhibits hypovirulence in R. necatrix.

SummaryRepeat-induced point mutation (RIP) is a process that detects DNA duplications and peppers their sequences with C:G to T:A transitions in the sexual phase of the life cycle. So far, this unique mechanism has been identified as a currently active process in only two fungal species, Neurospora crassa and Podospora anserina . To determine whether a RIP-like process operates in the plant pathogenic fungus Magnaporthe grisea , the retrotransposon MAGGY and the hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene were introduced into the fungus as multiple transgenes and examined for sequence alterations after a cross. Frequent C:G to T:A transitions in the transgenes were found in the descendants, preferentially in (A/ Tp)Cp(A/T) contexts, suggesting that a process similar to RIP functions in M. grisea . We also examined the sequence of another retrotransposon Pyret in six field isolates of M. grisea. Even though no perfect stage has been known in M. grisea under field conditions to date, RIP-like transitions were found in all the field isolates tested. Interestingly, the frequency of the transitions mostly correlated with the fertility of the isolates examined under laboratory conditions. These results imply that the sexual cycle of this fungus exists or existed in the natural field context.

The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) recently accepted Endornavirus as a new genus of plant dsRNA virus. We have determined the partial nucleotide sequences of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase regions from the large dsRNAs (about 14 kbp) isolated from barley (Hordeum vulgare), kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), melon (Cucumis melo), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), Malabar spinach (Basella alba), seagrass (Zostera marina), and the fungus Helicobasidium mompa. Phylogenetic analyses of these seven dsRNAs indicate that these dsRNAs are new members of the genus Endornavirus that are widely distributed over the plant and fungal kingdoms.

An important ingredient in democratic politicsis the experience of disagreement through social communication and political discussion. If people fail to encounter contrary viewpoints, their own views are never challenged, they are never forced to reconsider initially held opinions, and they are effectively excluded from democratic deliberation. This article examines patterns of political agreement and disagreement within the communication networks of citizens in Germany, Japan, and the United States. Several questions are addressed. Are there cross-national differences in patterns of agreement and disagreement among citizens? To what extent are these patterns subject to individual attitudes, to the structure of communication networks, and to levels of aggregate support for particular preferences and opinions? Finally, what are the implications of disagreement for civic capacity and political engagement? Empirical analyses are based on cooperative election surveys conducted in each country during the early 1990s.If political deliberation among citizens is thus central to democratic politics, and if the realization of disagreement is central to political deliberation, it would seem to follow quite naturally that a primary focus of political analysis should be on the patterns of agreement and disagreement that occur within electorates. In fact, relatively little attention is paid to these issues, and several factors help to account for this neglect. First, many models of citizenship do not point to the importance of deliberation and communication among citizens, but rather to the importance of individually autonomous interests, opinions, and attitudes. Second, when the importance of social communication is recognized, many analysts assume that individuals are typically located in politically homogeneous microenvironments that mirror the individual's own preferences. As a consequence, attention quite naturally reverts back to the individual: If we know that a Japanese FDP J J J J J J J 0. .7 J J J J J J J support in election 0.6 0.7 J J J J J J J

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