Viruses numerically dominate our oceans; however, we have only just begun to document the diversity, host range and infection dynamics of marine viruses, as well as the subsequent effects of infection on both host cell metabolism and oceanic biogeochemistry. Bacteriophages (that is, phages: viruses that infect bacteria) are highly abundant and are known to play critical roles in bacterial mortality, biogeochemical cycling and horizontal gene transfer. This Review Article summarizes current knowledge of marine viral ecology and highlights the importance of phage particles to the dissolved organic matter pool, as well as the complex interactions between phages and their bacterial hosts. We emphasize the newly recognized roles of phages as puppet masters of their bacterial hosts, where phages are capable of altering the metabolism of infected bacteria through the expression of auxiliary metabolic genes and the redirection of host gene expression patterns. Finally, we propose the 'royal family model' as a hypothesis to describe successional patterns of bacteria and phages over time in marine systems, where despite high richness and significant seasonal differences, only a small number of phages appear to continually dominate a given marine ecosystem. Although further testing is required, this model provides a framework for assessing the specificity and ecological consequences of phage-host dynamics.

BackgroundThe study of bacteriophages continues to generate key information about microbial interactions in the environment. Many phenotypic characteristics of bacteriophages cannot be examined by sequencing alone, further highlighting the necessity for isolation and examination of phages from environmental samples. While much of our current knowledge base has been generated by the study of marine phages, freshwater viruses are understudied in comparison. Our group has previously conducted metagenomics-based studies samples collected from Lake Michigan - the data presented in this study relate to four phages that were extracted from the same samples.FindingsFour phages were extracted from Lake Michigan on the same bacterial host, exhibiting similar morphological characteristics as shown under transmission electron microscopy. Growth characteristics of the phages were unique to each isolate. Each phage demonstrated a host-range spanning several phyla of bacteria – to date, such a broad host-range is yet to be reported. Genomic data reveals genomes of a similar size, and close similarities between the Lake Michigan phages and the Pseudomonas phage PB1, however, the majority of annotated genes present were ORFans and little insight was offered into mechanisms for host-range.ConclusionsThe phages isolated from Lake Michigan are capable of infecting several bacterial phyla, and demonstrate varied phenotypic characteristics despite similarities in host preference, and at the genomic level. We propose that such a broad host-range is likely related to the oligotrophic nature of Lake Michigan, and the competitive benefit that this characteristic may lend to phages in nature.

Bacterial surveys of the vaginal and bladder human microbiota have revealed an abundance of many similar bacterial taxa. As the bladder was once thought to be sterile, the complex interactions between microbes within the bladder have yet to be characterized. To initiate this process, we have begun sequencing isolates, including the clinically relevant genus Gardnerella. Herein, we present the genomic sequences of four Gardnerella strains isolated from the bladders of women with symptoms of urgency urinary incontinence; these are the first Gardnerella genomes produced from this niche. Congruent to genomic characterization of Gardnerella isolates from the reproductive tract, isolates from the bladder reveal a large pangenome, as well as evidence of high frequency horizontal gene transfer. Prophage gene sequences were found to be abundant amongst the strains isolated from the bladder, as well as amongst publicly available Gardnerella genomes from the vagina and endometrium, motivating an in depth examination of these sequences. Amongst the 39 Gardnerella strains examined here, there were more than 400 annotated prophage gene sequences that we could cluster into 95 homologous groups; 49 of these groups were unique to a single strain. While many of these prophages exhibited no sequence similarity to any lytic phage genome, estimation of the rate of phage acquisition suggests both vertical and horizontal acquisition. Furthermore, bioinformatic evidence indicates that prophage acquisition is ongoing within both vaginal and bladder Gardnerella populations. The abundance of prophage sequences within the strains examined here suggests that phages could play an important role in the species’ evolutionary history and in its interactions within the complex communities found in the female urinary and reproductive tracts.

Abstract. Bacteriophages are powerful ecosystem engineers. They drive bacterial mortality rates and genetic diversity, and affect microbially mediated biogeochemical processes on a global scale. This has been demonstrated in marine environments; however, phage communities have been less studied in freshwaters, despite representing a potentially more diverse environment. Lake Michigan is one of the largest bodies of freshwater on the planet, yet to date the diversity of its phages has yet to be examined. Here, we present a composite survey of viral ecology in the nearshore waters of Lake Michigan. Sequence analysis was performed using a web server previously used to analyse similar data. Our results revealed a diverse community of DNA phages, largely comprising the order Caudovirales. Within the scope of the current study, the Lake Michigan virome demonstrates a distinct community. Although several phages appeared to hold dominance, further examination highlighted the importance of interrogating metagenomic data at the genome level. We present our study as baseline information for further examination of the ecology of the lake. In the current study we discuss our results and highlight issues of data analysis which may be important for freshwater studies particularly, in light of the complexities associated with examining phage ecology generally.

Recent research has debunked the myth that urine is sterile, having uncovered bacteria within the bladders of healthy individuals. However, the identity, diversity, and putative roles of bacteriophages in the bladder are unknown. We report the draft genome sequences of seven bacteriophages isolated from microbial communities from adult female bladders.

Advances in bioinformatics and sequencing technologies have allowed for the analysis of complex microbial communities at an unprecedented rate. While much focus is often placed on the cellular members of these communities, viruses play a pivotal role, particularly bacteria-infecting viruses (bacteriophages); phages mediate global biogeochemical processes and drive microbial evolution through bacterial grazing and horizontal gene transfer. Despite their importance and ubiquity in nature, very little is known about the diversity and structure of viral communities. Though the need for culture-based methods for viral identification has been somewhat circumvented through metagenomic techniques, the analysis of metaviromic data is marred with many unique issues. In this review, we examine the current bioinformatic approaches for metavirome analyses and the inherent challenges facing the field as illustrated by the ongoing efforts in the exploration of freshwater phage populations.

Aquifers, which are essential underground freshwater reservoirs worldwide, are understudied ecosystems that harbor diverse forms of microbial life. This study investigated the abundance and composition of prokaryotic and viral communities in the outflow of five springs across northern Florida, USA, as a proxy of microbial communities found in one of the most productive aquifers in the world, the Floridan aquifer. The average abundances of virus-like particles and prokaryotic cells were slightly lower than those reported from other groundwater systems, ranging from 9.6 × 103 ml−1 to 1.1 × 105 ml−1 and 2.2 × 103 ml−1 to 3.4 × 104 ml−1, respectively. Despite all of the springs being fed by the Floridan aquifer, sequencing of 16S rRNA genes and viral metagenomes (viromes) revealed unique communities in each spring, suggesting that groundwater microbial communities are influenced by land usage in recharge zones. The prokaryotic communities were dominated by Bacteria, and though the most abundant phyla (Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, and Bacteroidetes) were found in relatively high abundance across springs, variation was seen at finer taxonomic resolution. The viral sequences were most similar to those described from other aquatic environments. Sequencing resulted in the completion of 58 novel viral genomes representing members of the order Caudovirales as well as prokaryotic and eukaryotic single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses. Sequences similar to those of ssDNA viruses were detected at all spring sites and dominated the identifiable sequences at one spring site, showing that these small viruses merit further investigation in groundwater systems. IMPORTANCE Aquifer systems may hold up to 40% of the total microbial biomass on Earth. However, little is known about the composition of microbial communities within these critical freshwater ecosystems. Here, we took advantage of Florida’s first-magnitude springs (the highest spring classification based on water discharge), each discharging at least 246 million liters of water each day from the Floridan aquifer system (FAS), to investigate prokaryotic and viral communities from the aquifer. The FAS serves as a major source of potable water in the Southeastern United States, providing water for large cities and citizens in three states. Unfortunately, the health of the FAS and its associated springs has declined in the past few decades due to nutrient loading, increased urbanization and agricultural activity in aquifer recharge zones, and saltwater intrusion. This is the first study to describe the prokaryotic and viral communities in Florida’s first-magnitude springs, providing a baseline against which to compare future ecosystem change.

Macronutrients and trace metals are incorporated into phytoplankton during growth and regenerated back into the water column when phytoplankton decay, a process that contributes to the distributions of dissolved trace metals and macronutrients in depth profiles. To study this, we incubated mixed Gulf of Mexico phytoplankton assemblages and monocultures of the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia dolorosa and the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis in the dark. Over 6 months, macronutrients (phosphate, silicic acid, nitrate + nitrite, nitrite, ammonium), chlorophyll-a, particulate organic carbon and nitrogen, and prokaryotes were monitored alongside dissolved manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Results were compared to depth profiles to evaluate the role of regeneration in trace metal cycling. In contrast to water-column distributions, silicic acid and phosphate were closely coupled in experiments containing diatoms, indicating a shared regeneration pathway. Nitrification and nitrifying prokaryotes were only observed near the end of a subset of the experiments. Of the trace metals, Cd was most tightly coupled with phosphate. Regeneration of Mn was followed by rapid drawdown, consistent with Mn-oxide formation. Iron (Fe), Cu, and Pb typically remained low until Mn was depleted, suggesting either scavenging to Mn-oxides or otherwise delayed regeneration of these elements. Cobalt (Co) and Ni were largely conservative, but behaved like nutrients in the experiment using more offshore water low in Cd and Zn. Although experimental conditions were limited in their representation of the water column, these incubations provide novel insight into macronutrient and trace metal regeneration in the oceans. At the base of the marine food web, phytoplankton require the macronutrients carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorous (P) to build cellular organic matter, and, for diatoms, silicon (Si) to build frustules (Redfield 1934; Brzezinski 1985). Phytoplankton also assimilate a suite of trace metals into their cells, including manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) (