Caffeine isthe mostwidely consumed and excreted psychoactive drug in the world. It is a ubiquitous tracer of urban wastewater, but its ecological effects are notwell understood. We hypothesized that caffeine exposure is associated with coral bleaching. Here we report the effects of caffeine on four species of coral algae endosymbionts belonging to three widely distributed clades: Clade A Symbiodinium microadriaticum (A), Clade B Symbiodinium sp. from Aiptasia pallida (B6), Clade B Symbiodinium sp. from Pseudoterogorgia bipinnata (B7), and Clade C Symbiodinium goreaui (C). To assess the effect of caffeine on algal physiology we used two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and peptide mass spectrometry to identify protein sensitive to caffeine exposure. The results show several upregulated and several downregulated polypeptides in all algae species tested. The heat-shock proteins are among the commonly affected proteins, suggesting that caffeine exposure associated with sewage discharge into natural waters may exacerbate the effects of stress from other environmental factors such as changes in ocean temperature and pH.
As the demographic pattern in most regions of the world changes in response to epidemiological transition, life expectancy is lengthened, and human reliance on medications to maintain the quality of life intensifies. It is now indisputable that widespread use of pharmaceutical products results in their release into the environment. This occurs primarily through the excretion of partially metabolized doses and the disposal of expired or unused medication. It is inevitable that that these fugitive releases lead to exposures of aquatic organisms and other natural ecosystem components. However, the driving force behind recent concerns is the potential for large‐scale human exposures through natural drinking water recycling processes. Historically, most investigations of anthropogenic chemicals in the environment have focused on acutely toxic industrial chemicals from mining, energy, and agricultural industries. The environmental impacts of products emanating from the pharmaceutical industry have largely been excluded from scrutiny. The U.S. Geological Survey conducted the first national survey of pharmaceutical products in natural water systems in 2000. The results of that study confirmed prior suspicions about the widespread contamination of aquatic systems by these products.
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