Attentional processes governing skilled motor behavior were examined in two studies. In Experiment 1, field hockey players performed a dribbling task under single-task, dual-task, and skill-focused conditions under both low and high pressure situations. In Experiment 2, skilled soccer players performed a dribbling task under single-task, skill-focused, and process-goal conditions, again under low and high pressure situations. Results replicated recent findings regarding the detrimental effect of skill-focused attention and the facilitative effect of dual-task conditions on skilled performance. In addition, focusing on movement related process goals was found to adversely affect performance. Support for the predictive validity of the Reinvestment Scale was also found, with high reinvesters displaying greater susceptibility to skill failure under pressure. Results were consistent with explicit monitoring theories of choking and are further discussed in light of the conceptual distinction between explicit monitoring and reinvestment of conscious control.

Items from the Reinvestment Scale were modified to create a decision-specific version of the scale. Principal components analysis of responses from 165 participants revealed one-, two-, three-, and four-factor solutions for the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale. Confirmatory factor analysis of responses from a second sample of 111 participants revealed that a 13-item two-factor solution showed the best fit. The first factor comprised six items referring to conscious monitoring of the process involved in making a decision, and was termed decision reinvestment. The second factor, decision rumination, comprised seven items related to focus on negative evaluations of previous poor decisions. In an initial assessment of predictive validity, Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale scores of 59 skilled team sport players were found to be highly correlated with coaches' ratings of players' tendency to choke under pressure (r = 0.74), with high Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale scores indicating greater susceptibility to poor decision-making under pressure. It was concluded that the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale highlights a performer's predisposition to engage in behaviours detrimental to performance under pressure, namely decision reinvestment and decision rumination.

A B S T R AC T This study sought to investigate differences in the coping strategies adopted by male and female first year students in a higher education environment and the extent to which such strategies had an impact on self-esteem and attainment. Results revealed significant differences between males and females in terms of engagement in coping strategies and academic attainment. Specifically, males exhibited greater ability to detach themselves from the emotions of a situation, were more inclined to demonstrate emotional inhibition or 'bottling up' of emotions and reported higher self-esteem. In addition, it was observed that females attained at a significantly higher level than males. Practical implications and recommendations for future research are identified.

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