The differentiation of mesenchymal cells into chondrocytes and chondrocyte proliferation and maturation are fundamental steps in skeletal development. Runx2 is essential for osteoblast differentiation and is involved in chondrocyte maturation. Although chondrocyte maturation is delayed inVertebrate skeletons are constructed through the formation of bone structures, a process that is achieved by intramembranous or endochondral ossification. Intramembranous bones, which are directly formed by osteoblasts, are restricted to the cranial vault, some facial bones, and parts of the mandible and clavicle, whereas the rest of the skeleton is composed of endochondral bones that are formed as a cartilaginous template which is then replaced by bone. In early skeletal development, mesenchymal cells condense and acquire the phenotypes of chondrocytes including the ability to produce Col2a1 and proteoglycan. In the process of endochondral ossification, immature chondrocytes proliferate, and chondrocytes at the center of the cartilaginous skeleton begin to mature to become prehypertrophic chondrocytes, which express parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone-related peptide (Pthlh) receptor (Pthr1) and Indian hedgehog (Ihh). The prehypertrophic chondrocytes further mature to hypertrophic chondrocytes, which express Col10a1. Upon the terminal differentiation of chondrocytes, the terminal hypertrophic chondrocytes express osteopontin, the matrix is mineralized, vascular vessels invade the calcified cartilage, and finally the cartilage is replaced by bone. Chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation occur in an organized manner and result in the formation of a growth plate that is composed of layers of chondrocytes at different stages of differentiation, in-

Runx2 is an essential transcription factor for osteoblast differentiation. However, the functions of Runx2 in postnatal bone development remain to be clarified. Introduction of dominant-negative (dn)-Runx2 did not inhibit Col1a1 and osteocalcin expression in mature osteoblastic cells. In transgenic mice that expressed dn-Runx2 in osteoblasts, the trabecular bone had increased mineralization, increased volume, and features of compact bone, and the expression of major bone matrix protein genes was relatively maintained. After ovariectomy, neither osteolysis nor bone formation was enhanced and bone was relatively conserved. In wild-type mice, Runx2 was strongly expressed in immature osteoblasts but downregulated during osteoblast maturation. These findings indicate that the maturity and turnover rate of bone are determined by the level of functional Runx2 and Runx2 is responsible for bone loss in estrogen deficiency, but that INTRODUCTIONBone is composed of compact bone and cancellous bone. In long bones, the shaft (cortical bone) consists of compact bone, and the inside of the shaft (trabecular bone), which is a threedimensional lattice of branching bony spicules, consists of cancellous bone. Compact bone is mature bone, because it is composed of densely packed, highly organized collagen fibrils with high mineralization, and is relatively resistant to osteolysis. In contrast, cancellous bone is less mature, because it is composed of loosely organized collagen fibrils with low mineralization, and it is easily resorbed and plays an important role in calcium homeostasis (Marks and Odgren, 2002). Runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) is a transcription factor that belongs to the Runx family and is involved in many aspects of skeletal development (Komori, 2005). Upon forming a heterodimer with core binding factor ␤ (Cbf␤), Runx2 acquires DNA-binding activity and regulates transcriptional activity (Kundu et al., 2002;Miller et al., 2002;Yoshida et al., 2002;Kanatani et al., 2006). There are two Runx2 isoforms, type I Runx2 and type II Runx2, which have different N-termini, and type I Runx2 is more dependent on Cbfb than type II Runx2 for their functional activities (Kanatani et al., 2006). Runx2-deficient mice lack osteoblasts and show a complete lack of bone formation, demonstrating that Runx2 is essential for osteoblast differentiation (Komori et al., 1997;Otto et al., 1997). Runx2 also plays important roles in chondrocyte maturation, maintenance of the chondrocyte phenotype, and vascular invasion into cartilage (Komori, 2005;Zelzer et al., 2001). Furthermore, Runx2 regulates RANKL and OPG expression stimulating osteoclast differentiation (Enomoto et al., 2003). These findings indicate that Runx2 functions as a key molecule in skeletal development.The DNA-binding sites of Runx2 in major bone matrix protein genes including the Col1a1, osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, and osteocalcin genes, have been identified, and Runx2 induced the expression of these genes or activated their promoters (Ducy et al., 1997(Ducy et...

Summary Paget's Disease (PD) is characterized by abnormal osteoclasts (OCL) that secrete high IL-6 levels and induce exuberant bone formation. Because measles virus nucleocapsid gene (MVNP) and the p62P392L mutation are implicated in PD, marrows from 12 PD patients harboring p62P392L and 8 normals were tested for MVNP expression and pagetic OCL formation. 8/12 patients expressed MVNP and formed pagetic OCL in vitro, which were inhibited by antisense-MVNP. 4/12 patients lacked MVNP and formed normal OCL that were hyper-responsive to RANKL but unaffected by antisense-MVNP. Similarly, mice expressing only p62P394L formed normal OCL, while mice expressing MVNP in OCL, with or without p62P394L, developed pagetic OCL and expressed high IL-6 levels dependent on p38MAPK activation. IL-6 deficiency in MVNP mice abrogated pagetic OCL development in vitro. Mice co-expressing MVNP and p62P394L developed dramatic Paget's-like bone lesions. These results suggest that p62P394L and IL-6 induction by MVNP play key roles in PD.

Summary In the growth plate, the interplay between Parathyroid Hormone-Related Peptide (PTHrP) and Indian Hedgehog (Ihh) signaling tightly regulates chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation during longitudinal bone growth. We found that PTHrP increases the expression of Zfp521, a zinc finger transcriptional co-regulator, in pre-hypertrophic chondrocytes. Mice with chondrocyte-targeted deletion of Zfp521 resembled PTHrP-/- and chondrocyte-specific PTHR1-/- mice, with decreased chondrocyte proliferation, early hypertrophic transition and reduced growth plate thickness. Deleting Zfp521 increased expression of Runx2 and Runx2 target genes, and decreased cyclin D1 and Bcl-2 expression while increasing caspase-3 activation and apoptosis. Zfp521 associated with Runx2 in chondrocytes, antagonizing its activity via an HDAC4-dependent mechanism. PTHrP failed to up-regulate cyclin D1 and to antagonize Runx2, Ihh and Collagen X expression when Zfp521 was absent. Thus, Zfp521 is an important PTHrP target gene that regulates growth plate chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation.